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Kamula–Elevala
Kamula–Elevala River
Geographic distribution	northern Western Province, Papua New Guinea
Linguistic classification	Trans–New Guinea Central West New Guinea Awyu–Ok Kamula–Elevala
Proto-language	Proto-Kamula–Elevala
Subdivisions	Awin–Pa (Awin–Pare) Kamula
Language codes
Glottolog	kamu1264
Map: The Awin–Pa–Kamula languages of New Guinea   The Awin–Pa and Kamula languages   Other Trans–New Guinea languages   Other Papuan languages   Austronesian languages   Uninhabited

The Kamula–Elevala languages are a small family of the Trans–New Guinea languages spoken in the region of the Elevala River.

Languages

There are three languages, namely Aekyowm (Awin), Pare (Pa), and Kamula. They are not obviously related to each other, but Aekyowm and Pare are closer to each other than to Kamula.

• Kamula
• Awin–Pa (Elevala River)
  • Aekyowm (Awin)
  • Pare (Pa)

A more in-depth classification by Suter and Usher (2017) is as follows.

Kamula-Elevala family

• Kamula
• Elevala (= Awin-Pare) family
  • Pa (= Pare, Ba, Debepare)
  • Aekyom (= Awin, Akium)
    • Northeastern (= Aekyom-Skai)
    • North Central
    • Southeastern (= Aekyom-Pare)
    • Western

Classification

Stephen Wurm (1975) added Awin and Pa to an expanded Central and South New Guinea branch of TNG, a position reversed by Ross (2005). The connection between Awin–Pa and Kamula was established by Suter & Usher.

Reconstruction

Phonology

Usher (2020) reconstructs the consonant and vowel inventories as follows:

		Bilabial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar
Nasal		*m	*n
Plosive	voiceless	*p (or *h)	*t		*k
	voiced	*b (or *p)	*d		*g
Fricative			*s
Semivowel		*w		*j

There is also the diphthong *ai.

Pronouns

Usher (2020) reconstructs the Awin–Pa pronouns as:

	sg	du	pl
1	*nɔ	*ni, *ki
2	*go	*gi
3	*jɔ

In the 1du, Awin has /ki/ and Pare /ni/, /niki/, /nigi/. The Kamula singular forms are quite similar (na, wa, je), but it does not have the dual.

Vocabulary

Some Proto-Kamula-Elevala lexical reconstructions by Usher (2020) are:

gloss	Proto-Kamula-Elevala
head	*ke̝ba
ear	*md
eye	*kinɔ
nose	*kine̝
tusk/tooth	*bate̝
tongue/flame	*taⁱ
knee/leg	*tama
bone	*ke̝dɔ
louse	*awV
dog	*ti
pig	*m₂aⁱnæ
bird	*te̝ja
egg/fruit/seed	*mk
tree	*je̝
man	*kb
sun/day	*gani
stone	*ike̝
name	*pi
eat/drink	*de̝-
one	*tVo̝

Below are all of the lexical reconstructions of Proto-Kamula-Elevala from Suter and Usher (2017):

gloss	Proto-Kamula-Elevala
house	*aja
mushroom	*ap(ɔ,o)
hear	*dade-
where?	*dai
sago	*daja
eat, drink	*de-
burn, cook	*du-
middle	*dunu
brother	*ei
sun, day	*gani
belly, bowels	*gene
leech	*gimada
hold	*hamV-
upright	*hane
name	*hi
light (in weight)	*hodoka
stand, stay	*hV-
sago thatch	*jeme
hit	*jV-
bone	*kedɔ
man	*kopo
now, today	*kwa-
thigh	*madina
shoulder	*makæ
know	*maN(æ,a)-
teeth, mouth	*mat(e,i)
kindle	*mi-
son, child	*mi
body	*mot(e,i)
joint	*mu
tusk	*patæ
skin disease	*peseni
die	*po-
tie, wrap	*podi
pierce, burst	*poko-
heart, pity	*pɔdɔw(e,a)
be soft	*pɔpɔtæ-
close eyes	*pudi-
sit	*pV-
speech	*sa
rafter	*saka
paddle	*sode
tongue	*tai
afternoon	*tamide
make, do	*ti-
embers	*tine
bow (for arrows)	*tɔ
upstream	*t(ɔ,o)t(ɔ,o)
thorn	*tu
banana	*tuma
go	*tV-
one	*tVdo
illicit	*u
scar	*ud(e,i)
urine	*ute
grub	*wæja
left (hand)	*weke

Proto-Elevala

Proto-Elevala reconstructions from Suter and Usher (2017):

gloss	Proto-Elevala
hand, arm	*a
lie down	*æ-
sand	*daNi
give	*dæ-
flea	*dideme
meat	*dinæ
testicles	*dipɔ
crocodile	*dope
sap, juice	*dɔdæ
fingernail	*d(ɔ,a)kæ
see	*dV-
sugarcane	*ga
beak	*ga
sing	*gi-
gums	*gine
younger brother	*gɔmɔde
cut	*gu
stick	*gum(ɔ,a)
count	*hiakV-
breath	*hine
do, make	*hɔmV-
carry on head	*i-
stone	*ike
song	*jɔkæ
set on fire	*kamV-
leg	*kate
beetle	*kiame
thunder	*kima(ti)
nose	*kine
face	*kiNɔ-namæ58
white	*kɔnV-kaina59
coconut	*kɔpɔkæ
pig	*mainæ
head	*mini
below	*moka
fish	*mone
stem	*moNæ
what?	*na
cane mail shirt	*napo
charcoal	*o
drum	*pi
heavy	*piena
buttocks	*po
smell	*pɔmæ
bride price	*puNe
goanna	*sɔNɔmæ
yesterday	*te
sago thatch	*temæ
rattan	*tike
ground, earth	*tɔ
wild	*tɔna

Vocabulary comparison

The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970), Shaw (1973), and Shaw (1986), as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database.

The words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g. kɔ, kro for “bone”) or not (e.g. mɔgɔ, kɛndɔkɛ for “ear”). Notice the very low number of cognate pairs between the two languages.

gloss	Pare	Aekyom
head	keba; kiba	pɔƀe
hair	osɛ; ouse	tɛnɛ
ear	mogamɛ; mogo; mɔgɔ	kɛndɔkɛ
eye	kere-mo; kinemo; kinemɔ	krO-ŋɛ
nose	kene; kine	koe
tooth	male; marɛ; pɛrɛ	pʰɛtɛ
tongue	tɛ	tiː
leg	tamakali
louse	kiba ʔo; kiba ʔɔ; ɔ	huɔlɛ
dog	ti; til	psane
pig	mele
bird	tie; tiye
egg	moʔo; mɔʔɔ
blood	sowo; sɔwɔ
bone	ko; kɔ	kro
skin	sia; siga; siya	kare
breast	bu	tutɛ
tree	i̧; ĩ	de; doe
man	kobo
woman	wigi
sun	gẽnɛ̃; gine	toe
moon	abi
water	mɔa; omɛ; ɔmɔɛ; ume	waɛ
fire	ne; nɛ	de; doe
stone	iebɔ; iyebo
road, path	utigi	tɛnɛ
name	hi	hi
eat	da; denu; de-nu	də
one	oteso; ɔtesɔ
two	diyabo; diyabɔ
String Bag	dissa; disaɔ

Evolution

Proposed Awin–Pa reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma:

Aekyom language:

• kendoke ‘ear’ < *kand(e,i)k
• khatike ‘leg’ < *k(a,o)
• ndok, kare ‘skin’ < *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu
• di ‘firewood, fire’ < *inda

Pa language:

• keba ‘head’ < *kV(mb,p)(i,u)tu
• ama ‘mother < *am(a,i)
• di- ‘burn’ < *nj(a,e,i)

Loanwords

Kamula and Doso

Loanwords between Kamula and Doso:

No.	Kamula	Doso	Turumsa
1	'father'	'father'	'father'
2	'mother'	'mother'	'mother'
3	'older brother'	'older brother'
4	'older sister'	'older sister'
5	'blood'	'blood'
6	'stomach'		'belly (outside)'
7	'wallaby'	'wallaby'	'wallaby'
8	'cassowary'	'cassowary'	'cassowary'
9	'cloud'	'cloud'
10	'sand'	'sand'

Aekyom and Ok

Aekyom loanwords from Ok languages:

No.	Aekyom	Mountain Ok	Lowland Ok
1	'rubbish'	*mɔːn 'rubbish, compost'
2	'garden newly felled'	*ɾaŋg 'garden'	*joŋg 'garden'
3	'canoe'		*kono 'canoe'
4	'turtle'	*ambɔːm 'turtle species'	*ambom 'turtle'
5	'hornbill'	*kaweːɾ 'Papuan hornbill'	*kaweɾ 'hornbill'
6	'rhinoceros beetle'	*umiːn 'rhinoceros beetle'
7	'nephew, maternal'	*mɔːm 'mother's brother'	*mom 'mother's brother'
8	'grandmother'	*ap(e,o)ːk 'grandmother'	*apok 'grandmother'
9	'outer ear'	*kindɔːŋg 'inner ear'	*kende 'ear'
10	'in the mouth'	*maŋgat 'mouth, chin'	*maŋgot 'mouth'

Kamula and Aramia River

Kamula loanwords from Aramia River languages:

No.	Kamula	Waruna	Gogodala
1	'taro'	'taro'	'taro'
2	'yam'		'yam'
3	'canoe'	'canoe'	'canoe'
4	'paddle, oar'	'paddle'	'paddle'
5	'chicken'	'fowl'
6	'breadfruit'	'breadfruit'

Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut

Potential cognates between Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970):

Abbreviations

• pAD = proto-Awyu–Dumut
• pA = proto-Awyu
• pD = proto-Dumut
• pKE = proto-Kamula–Elevala
• pK = proto-Kamula
• pE = proto-Elevala

Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970)	Kamula–Elevala
pAD *dat- 'hear'	pKE *dade- 'hear'
pAD *do- 'be cooked'	pKE *du- 'burn, cook'
pAD *ɛdex- 'give'	pE *dæ- 'give'
pAD *füp 'name'	pKE *hi 'name'
pAD *göp 'you (sg.)'	pE *go 'you (sg.)'
pAD *ket 'flower'	Pa 'blossom'
pAD *mak 'shoulder'	pKE *makæ 'shoulder'
pAD *nop 'I'	pE *nɔ 'I'
pAD *or 'excreta, intestines'	Kamula /o/ 'abdomen, belly'
pAD *xaiban 'head'	Pa 'head'
pAD *xop 'male, man'	pKE *kopo 'man'
pAD *yin 'tree, wood, fire'	Pa 'tree'
pA *bu 'buttocks'	pE *po 'buttocks'
pA *dübe, *dübi 'island'	Aekyom 'island'
pA *düb(-ro) 'heart'	Kamula 'heart'
pA *makan, *mokan 'low, beneath'	pE *moka 'below'
pA *midi(n) 'thigh'	pKE *madina 'thigh'
pA *wün 'liver'	Pa 'liver'
pA *xui(-to) 'sky'	Aekyom 'sky, heaven'
pD *ba- 'sit'	pKE *pV- 'sit'
pD *kumöt 'thunder'	pE *kima(ti) 'thunder'

References

1. ^ New Guinea World, Digul River – Ok
2. ^ Suter, Edgar; Usher, Timothy (2017). "The Kamula-Elevala Language Family". Language & Linguistics in Melanesia. 35. Port Moresby: Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea. ISSN 0023-1959.
3. Edgar Suter & Timothy Usher (2017) "The Kamula–Elevala language family", Language and Linguistics in Melanesia 35: 106–131.
4. McElhanon, K.A. and Voorhoeve, C.L. The Trans-New Guinea Phylum: Explorations in deep-level genetic relationships. B-16, vi + 112 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1970. doi:10.15144/PL-B16
5. Shaw, R.D. "A Tentative Classification of the Languages of the Mt Bosavi Region". In Franklin, K. editor, The linguistic situation in the Gulf District and adjacent areas, Papua New Guinea. C-26:187-215. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1973. doi:10.15144/PL-C26.187
6. Shaw, R.D. "The Bosavi language family". In Laycock, D., Seiler, W., Bruce, L., Chlenov, M., Shaw, R.D., Holzknecht, S., Scott, G., Nekitel, O., Wurm, S.A., Goldman, L. and Fingleton, J. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 24. A-70:45-76. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1986. doi:10.15144/PL-A70.45
7. Greenhill, Simon (2016). "TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea". Retrieved 2020-11-05.
8. Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2018). "The Trans New Guinea family". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 21–196. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
9. Healey, Alan 1970. Proto-Awyu-Dumut phonology. In: Stephen A. Wurm and Donald C. Laycock (eds). Pacific Linguistic studies in honour of Arthur Capell. (PL C-13). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. 997-1063.

• Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15–66. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC 67292782.

External links

• Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, Proto–Digul River – Ok
• Usher & Suter, Proto–Kamula – Elevala River

• Kamula–Elevala languages
• Languages of Western Province (Papua New Guinea)