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Konkomba is a Gurma language spoken in Ghana, Togo and Burkina Faso.

Geography

Konkomba is spoken in Ghana (Northern Region, Volta Region, Brong Ahafo Region, Eastern Region and Accra), and Togo (Savanes Region, Kara Region and Plateaux Region). Smaller numbers can also found in Burkina Faso.

Dialects and literature

The Konkomba language, known natively as Likpakpaanl, is spoken by the Konkomba people, who are also known as the Bikpakpaam. The Konkomba language has several dialects, including, but not limited to, Lichaboil, Ligbeln, Likoonli, Limonkpeln and Linafeel.

The dialects of Konkomba emerged because different families and groups settled together and adopted unique pronunciation and vocabulary patterns, forming what could be called uniform dialect groupings. For example, "map geek" in (in the Lichabol dialect), "may LAK Iya" (in the Limonkpeln dialect), and "many men" (in the Likoon dialect) all mean "I don't like that". This type of variation can be heard in Likpakpaanl, depending on the geographic area or what clan is dominant in a particular settlement. However, Lichaboil dialect is the written variety. Other Bikpakpaam dialects classifications include Linankpel (Nankpantiib), Likpalil (Bikpalib), Linandeln (Binandim), Lisagmaln (Sagmantiib), and Linalol (Binalob).

A reasonable amount of Likpakpaanl literature exists. This literature includes primers for teaching, a dictionary, storybooks, and folk tales. There is also a full translation of the Bible in Likpakpaanl, created through the work of GILLBT and GIL, Mary Steele, and RILADEP (formerly KOLADEP, Konkomba Literacy and Development Project). Work on the Likpakpaanl Bible translation was started by Mary Steele in 1962 when she arrived to work with the Wycliffe Bible Translators.

Classification

Konkomba is a Gur language. It is related to the Bimoba language spoken by the Bimoba people of Ghana, to the Moba language spoken by the Moba people of Togo and Burkina Faso, and to the Bassari language spoken by the Bassari people of Togo and Ghana. It is part of the Gurma subgroup, which also includes several other languages such as Gourmanche and Miyobe.

Orthography

Alphabet

Capital letters

A, B, (C), CH, D, E, F, G, GB, I, J, K, KP, L, M, N, NY, Ŋ, ŊM, O, Ɔ, P, R, S, T, U, W, Y.

Lower-case letters

a, b, (c), ch, d, e, f, g, gb, i, j, k, kp, l, m, n, ny, ŋ, ŋm, o, ɔ, p, r, s, t, u, w, y.

The orthography follows that used in the literature currently in print in Likpakpaanl. Under the current convention, long and short vowels are distinguished by the use of single and double letters respectively. (e.g. a, aa). Tone is not marked, but where two words contrast only in tone and the context is unlikely to indicate a distinction in meaning, an "h" is added after the vowel in one of the words (e.g. upii – woman, upiih – sheep).

Certain variations that may occur in the a given speaker's speech. For example, sometimes a speaker may use the /r/ sound and sometimes the /l/ sound. Also, there may be variations between one speaker and another within the same village (e.g. some use the plural tiib and some teeb). This is, however, at the phonological level and does not affect semantic interpretation.

The letter c outside the digraph ch is listed by GILLBT's Likpakpaani Dictionary, but not in other sources.

Phonology

Consonants

Vowels

Nasalization among vowel sounds is also heard when preceding nasal consonants.

Grammar

Lexical Tone

Differences in tone can change the lexical function of a particular word. In contrast to many other Gur languages, Likpakpaanl tones have no grammatical function.

úpíí

úpíí

„woman.“

úpìì

úpìì

„Sheep.“

Grammatical Tone

There are two-level tones; low (⸜) and high (⸝), which are used to distinguish between perfective and habitual aspects. The tones do not change regardless of the person specification of the noun or a pronoun.

N

1SG

dàà

buy.PFV

lòòr.

car

N dàà lòòr.

1SG buy.PFV car

„I have bought a car.“

Bì

3PL

chèè

harvest.PFV

ì-mùùl.

NC-rice

Bì chèè ì-mùùl.

3PL harvest.PFV NC-rice

„They harvested rice.“

N

1SG

dáá

buy.HAB

lòòr-tiib

car-PL

N dáá lòòr-tiib

1SG buy.HAB car-PL

„I buy cars regularly.“

Bì

3PL

chéé

harvest.HAB

ì-mùùl.

NC-rice

Bì chéé ì-mùùl.

3PL harvest.HAB NC-rice

„They harvest rice regularly.“

Noun Class System

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns can either occur preverbally or postvebally. In both cases, there is an additional distinction in the third person with regard to animacy.

Preverbal

Preverbal personal pronouns are used as subjects. Which form for the first person pronoun is used, depends on the phonology of the following word.

Postverbal

Postverbal personal pronouns are used as objects.

Emphatic Pronouns

Emphatic pronouns are formed by a personal pronoun and an additional suffix. This suffix is in singular -ìn or -mà, whereas in the plural the suffix is -mì or -mà.

Reciprocal Pronouns

There is only one reciprocal pronoun tͻb in Likpakpaanl.

Bὶ

3PL

fè

PST

mànn

visit

tͻb

RECP

fènnà.

yesterday

Bὶ fè mànn tͻb fènnà.

3PL PST visit RECP yesterday

„They visited each other yesterday."

Reflexive Pronouns

Rflexive pronouns are formed by the personal pronouns, to which the suffix -bà ('self') is attached to.

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns in Likpakpaanl have the same morphological form than the preverbal personal pronouns. In special contexts, the prefix -aa can be attached to the possessum in order to emphasize the relation between the possessor and the possessum.

N

1SG

do.

house

N do.

1SG house

„My house.“

N’àà-do.

1SG-POSS-house

N’àà-do.

1SG-POSS-house

„My house.“

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns are dependent on the prefix of the noun that indicates its noun class. The relative pronoun is thus a reflection of the noun class and functions as a resumptive pronoun.

Ù-bò

NC-child

ù

REL

dàà

buy

lòòr

car

nà.

REL.DET

Ù-bò ù dàà lòòr nà.

NC-child REL buy car REL.DET

„The child who bought a car.“

John

John

dàà

buy

ì-gbéér

NC-pig

ì

REL

dɔ

lie

dòò

here

nà.

REL.DET

John dàà ì-gbéér ì dɔ dòò nà.

John buy NC-pig REL lie here REL.DET

„John bought pigs (that) are lying here.“

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns are formed by the noun class prefix of the particular noun and the suffix -mìnà. Likpakpaanl makes a distinction between proximal and distal demonstratives.

Syntax

Word Order

Likpakpaanl is a Subject–verb–object language.

Adam

Adam

fé

HEST.PST

tun

work

fénna.

yesterday

Adam fé tun fénna.

Adam HEST.PST work yesterday

„Adam worked yesterday.“

Adam

Adam

fé

HEST.PST

k​ɔr

slaughter

uk​ɔla

fowl

fénna.

yesterday

Adam fé k​ɔr uk​ɔla fénna.

Adam HEST.PST slaughter fowl yesterday

„Adam slaughtered fowl yesterday.“

Konja

Konja

mèè

beg.PST

Sam

Sam

lè

FOC

ki-gban

NC-book

din.

today

Konja mèè Sam lè ki-gban din.

Konja beg.PST Sam FOC NC-book today

„Konja begged a booked from Sam.“

Verb Phrase

The VP consists of the main verb and preverbal particles encoding Tense, Aspect and Mood.

Preverbal Particles

Aspectual Particles

There is a distinction between perfective and imperfective aspect. The perfective is not explicitly marked, while the imperfective is expressed by the particle -bì.

Adelina

Adelina

ŋàr

sweep

bù-sùb

NC-tree

tààb.

under

Adelina ŋàr bù-sùb tààb.

Adelina sweep NC-tree under

„Adelina swept under the tree.“

Adelina

Adelina

bì

IPFV

ŋàr

sweep

bù-sùb

NC-tree

tààb.

under

Adelina bì ŋàr bù-sùb tààb.

Adelina IPFV sweep NC-tree under

„Adelina is sweeping under the tree.“

Tense Particles

There are five distinct tense forms that are morphologically realized by an individual particle. Likpakpaanl marks immediate past (bà), remote past (nàn), hesternal past (fè), future (gà) and negative future (ààn). The particles for the particular tense form also immediately precede the verb.

Naajo

Naajo

bà

PST

kùùr

weed

kì-sààk

NC-farm

gbààn.

DEF

Naajo bà kùùr kì-sààk gbààn.

Naajo PST weed NC-farm DEF

„Naajo weeded the farm.“

Naajo

Naajo

nàn

PST

kùùr

weed

kì-sààk

NC-farm

gbààn.

DEF

Naajo nàn kùùr kì-sààk gbààn.

Naajo PST weed NC-farm DEF

„Naajo weeded the farm.“

Naajo

Naajo

fè

HEST.PST

kùùr

weed

kì-sààk

NC-farm

gbààn.

DEF

Naajo fè kùùr kì-sààk gbààn.

Naajo HEST.PST weed NC-farm DEF

„Naajo weeded the farm.“

Naajo

Naajo

gà

FUT

kùùr

weed

kì-sààk

NC-farm

gbààn.

DEF

Naajo gà kùùr kì-sààk gbààn.

Naajo FUT weed NC-farm DEF

„Naajo will weed the farm.“

Naajo

Naajo

ààn

NEG.FUT

kùùr

weed

kì-sààk

NC-farm

gbààn.

DEF

Naajo ààn kùùr kì-sààk gbààn.

Naajo NEG.FUT weed NC-farm DEF

„Naajo will not weed the farm.“

Verb

Main verbs in Likpakpaanl do not morphologically inflect, therefore there is no grammatical agreement.

Questions

There are different options how to form a question. The question word can either occur clause-initially, which is also referred to as ex situ, or it can stay in situ, meaning that it occurs at the end of the clause. Moreover, a question can also be embedded in a subordinated clause and a question can also have more than one question word.

Ba

what

lè

FOC

Konja

Konja

mèè?

beg.PST

Ba lè Konja mèè?

what FOC Konja beg.PST

„What did Konja beg for?“

Konja

Konja

mèè

beg.PST

​ŋmà

who

ki-gban?

NC-book

Konja mèè ​ŋmà ki-gban?

Konja beg.PST who NC-book

„Who did Konja beg a book from?“

Ama

Ama

bae

ask.PST

ke

COMP

bà

what

John

John

k​ɔr.

slaughter.PFV

Ama bae ke bà John k​ɔr.

Ama ask.PST COMP what John slaughter.PFV

„Ama asked what John slaughtered.“

Bà

what

lè

FOC

Konja

Konja

mèè

beg.PST

​ŋmà?

who

Bà lè Konja mèè ​ŋmà?

what FOC Konja beg.PST who

„What did Konja beg from whom?“

Sample text in Likpakpaanl

The following is a sample portion of the Holy Bible translated into Likpakpaanl, along with the corresponding passage in English:

"Yesu aah kan kinipaak ngbaan na, le u jon ligongoln paab, le ki kal. Le waadidiliib kuun u chee. Le u waar umɔb ki bui bi ke: 'Binib bi nyi ke bi ye bigiim Uwumbɔr wɔb na, waanyoor bi bi pu. Bima le yeh Uwumbɔr aanaan. Binib bi kpa mpombiin baatunwanbir pu na, Uwumbɔr aanyoor bi bi pu; u ga sɔŋ bisui. Binib bi sunn bibaa taab na, Uwumbɔr aanyoor bi bi pu. Bima le ga li yeh dulnyaa wee. Binib bi aanimbil man ke bi li ye bininyaam na, Uwumbɔr aanyoor bi bi pu. Binimbil ga gbiin. Binib bi kpa linimbaasaln na, Uwumbɔr aanyoor bi bi pu. U mu ga san bi kinimbaak. Binib bi dii Uwumbɔr ni bisui mɔmɔk na, waanyoor bi bi pu. Bima le ga kan uma Uwumbɔr. Binib bi par kijaak na, Uwumbɔr aanyoor bi bi pu. U ga len ke bi ye waabim. Binib bi ji falaa Uwumbɔr aasan aadiim pu na, waanyoor bi bi pu. Bima le yeh uma Uwumbɔr aanaan.'"

— Matiu 5:1–10 XONB

"And seeing the multitudes, He went up on a mountain, and when He was seated His disciples came to Him. Then He opened His mouth and taught them, saying: 'Blessed are the poor in spirit, For theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall be comforted. Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth. Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they shall be filled. Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God. Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called sons of God. Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness' sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.'"

— Matthew 5:1–10 NKJV

See also

• Konkomba people
• Languages of Ghana

References

1. ^ Konkomba at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
2. Froelich, 1954 as cited by Hasselbring, 2006.
3. Njindan, Bernard. 2014. Konkomba People in Ghana: A Historical Perspective. Unpublished Manuscript. July 2014.
4. Bisilki, Kwesi Abraham (2021). Aspects of the grammar of Likpakpaanl: A Mabia (Gur) language spoken in Ghana. University of Hong Kong.
5. ^ "The VP-periphery in Mabia languages | Likpakpaanl". The VP-periphery in Mabia languages. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
6. Kerstin Winkelmann. (2012). D4. Konkomba (Likpakpaln). In: G. Miehe, B. Reineke & K. Winkelmann Noun class systems in Gur languages Vol. 4: North Central Gur Languages. Cologne: Köppe, 472-486.
7. ^ Acheampong, Samuel Owoahene (2015). Reflexivisation in Likpakpaanl. Winneba.: University of Education. pp. MPhil Thesis.
8. ^ "The VP-periphery in Mabia languages | Likpakpaanl". The VP-periphery in Mabia languages. Retrieved 2023-01-26.
9. Matiu 5:1-10 Yesu aah kan kinipaak ngbaan na, le u jon ligongoln paab, le ki kal. Le waadidiliib kuun u chee. Le u waar umɔb ki bui bi ke: Binib bi nyi ke bi ye bigiim Uwumbɔr wɔb na, waanyoor bi bi pu. Bima le ye | Uwumbɔr aagbaŋ (XONB) | Download the Bible App Now.
10. Matthew 5:1-10 and seeing the multitudes, He went up on a mountain, and when He was seated His disciples came to Him. Then He opened His mouth and taught them, saying: "Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is | New King James Version (NKJV) | Download the Bible App Now.

• Typological features
• Anne Schwarz, ""
• Tait, David. 1954. "Konkomba nominal classes" (with a phonetic commentary by P. D. Strevens). Africa, v. 24, p. 130–148.

• Languages of Ghana
• Languages of Togo
• Gurma languages