Misplaced Pages

This list of African species extinct in the Holocene covers extinctions from the Holocene epoch, a geologic epoch that began about 11,650 years before present (about 9700 BCE) and continues to the present.

Africa is highly biodiverse; it is the continent with the largest number of megafauna species, as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna. However, a few species have disappeared from Africa as part of the ongoing Holocene extinction, driven by human activity.

Madagascar and the Indian Ocean islands, Macaronesia, and Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha are biogeographically distinct from mainland Africa and have a much greater number of Holocene extinctions. Recently extinct species from these regions are listed in separate articles.

Many extinction dates are unknown due to a lack of relevant information.

Mammals (class Mammalia)

Elephant-like mammals (order Proboscidea)

Elephants and mammoths (family Elephantidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
North African elephant	Loxodonta africana pharaoensis	North Africa	Neolithic rock art indicates that the African bush elephant inhabited much of the Sahara desert and North Africa at the beginning of the Holocene, and Ancient authors wrote that it was present in the Atlas Mountains, the Red Sea coast, and Nubia until the first few centuries CE. It was also present in much of Egypt, except for the Sinai Peninsula, during the Late Paleolithic or early Holocene. However the validity of separate subspecies in Loxodonta africana has been called into question, including the purported North African subspecies L. a. pharaoensis. Ptolemy II Philadelphus (r. 284-246 BC) founded the cities of Berenice Troglodytica and Ptolemais Theron as hunting bases to provide himself with African raw ivory and war elephants, replacing the costlier imports from India. This caused the depletion of elephant populations along the Red Sea coast and northern Somalia in less than two or three decades. These "Eritrean" elephants were at one point identified as African forest elephants due to Polybius's claim that they were smaller than the Asian elephants they faced at the Battle of Raphia, but genetic analyses show they were bush elephants. In the Roman Empire, the Maghreb and possibly Western Africa through the Garamantes became additional sources of ivory and live elephants for the circus games. The last clear mention of wild elephants in the former is a speech of the orator Themistius delivered in 370 CE, where he mentions that "elephants have been removed from Libya".

Rodents (order Rodentia)

Old World rats and mice (family Muridae)

Possibly extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Ethiopian amphibious rat	Nilopegamys plumbeus	Little Abbai river, Northwestern Ethiopia	Known from, and described from a single specimen captured on March 20, 1927. The species is believed to be semiaquatic due to adaptations shared with aquatic rodents from South America that are not known in other African rodents. If this is correct, this is probably an extremely solitary species as similarly adapted rodents are, which increases the difficulty of detection. However the area where the original individual was captured has been also altered by extensive overgrazing by livestock, which may have caused its decline and extinction.

Primates (order Primates)

Lorises, pottos, and angwantibos (family Lorisidae)

Possibly extinct

True insectivores (order Eulipotyphla)

True shrews (family Soricidae)

Locally extinct

Carnivorans (order Carnivora)

Cats (family Felidae)

Locally extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Barbary lion	Population of the northern lion (Panthera leo leo)	North Africa	Lions existed throughout Egypt in ancient times. The last lion in Libya was killed in 1700, in Tunisia in 1891, in Morocco in 1942 (on the Tizi-N'Tichka pass of the High Atlas), and in Algeria in 1943. There was an unconfirmed sighting of a lion by the passengers of a bus in a remote wooded area of the Béni Ourtilane District of Algeria in 1956. Despite being the first subspecies named by Linnaeus in the 18th century, modern molecular studies indicate that there is not enough difference with the extant lions of India, western and central Africa to warrant separate subspecies status, and as a result the taxon P. l. leo is not extinct.
Cape lion	Population of the southern lion (Panthera leo melanochaita)	South Africa	Last individual was killed in KwaZulu-Natal in 1865. Though widely recognized as a subspecies since being named in 1842, modern molecular studies indicate that there is not enough difference with extant lions of southern and eastern Africa to warrant separate subspecies status, and as a result the taxon P. l. melanochaita is not extinct.
Barbary leopard	Population of the African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus)	Atlas Mountains	Last recorded in 1996. Though named as the subspecies P. p. panthera in 1777, it was later included in P. p. pardus on morphological and molecular grounds.
Zanzibar leopard	Population of the African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus)	Unguja, Tanzania	Only African insular population of leopards. Subjected to a extermination campaign after the Zanzibar Revolution of 1964, the last confirmed sighting happened in 1986. Though named as the subspecies P. p. adersi in 1932, it was included in the African leopard P. p. pardus in 1996 on morphological grounds. There was an unconfirmed recording of a leopard in Unguja in 2018.

Dogs (family Canidae)

Locally extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Gray wolf	Canis lupus	Eurasia and North America	Lived in the Nile Delta in prehistoric times. The African wolf has considerable genetic admixture from the gray wolf.

Bears (family Ursidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Atlas bear	Ursus arctos crowtheri	Northern Maghreb	This subspecies was named after the second-hand description of a female killed in the Rif near Tétouan in 1834 and its pelt, which is now lost. The presence of brown bears in Morocco and Algeria was confirmed with the finding of several bones ranging from the Pleistocene to 662-778 CE, mostly in high mountains around 1200-2000 meters above sea level. Bears were of similar size to the small southern populations of Spain, Italy, and the Middle East. Native knowledge of bears was also documented in Algeria in the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. mtDNA studies revealed that two highly distinct lineages of bears existed in North Africa through the Holocene: one identical to Cantabrian brown bears from Spain, and another that was basal to all European brown bears. The North African bear could have disappeared due to increased habitat fragmentation.

Locally extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Syrian bear	Ursus arctos syriacus	Near East	Lived in the Nile Delta in prehistoric times and possibly in northeastern Egypt in early historical times.

Odd-toed ungulates (order Perissodactyla)

Horses and allies (family Equidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Atlas wild ass	Equus africanus atlanticus	North Africa	Disappeared around 300 CE. This subspecies is attributed a distribution in the Atlas region of northern Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, although E. africanus is also known from the Holocene of the Sahara, Egypt, and Arabia, excluding the extant subspecies E. a. africanus and E. a. somaliensis from Sudan and the Horn of Africa. North African rock art and Roman mosaics show animals with characteristic leg stripes and a shoulder stripe, often doubled, different from the extant subspecies. However, it's been claimed that the name E. a. atlanticus would be unavailable due to improper description of a type specimen. Domestic donkeys have two different haplotypes, one shared with the Nubian wild ass, and another of unknown origin that is not found in the Somali wild ass. The presence of the Atlas wild ass in the Ancient world makes it a plausible source for the second haplotype.
North African horse	Equus algericus	North Africa	Most recent remains dated to 4855-4733 BCE at El Harhoura 1, Morocco.
Giant Cape zebra	Equus capensis	Southern Africa	Most recent remains at Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa were dated to 8120-7980 BCE. Described as the largest equid of the African Quaternary and an extreme hypsodont, its extinction is speculated to be related to the decline in the availability or productivity of grassland habitats since the end of the Last Glacial Maximum. However, ancient DNA studies indicate that the giant Cape zebra is not a separate species, but a distinct lineage of the plains zebra (E. quagga).
North African zebra	Equus mauritanicus	North Africa	Related to the plains zebra. Disappeared c. 4000 BCE.
	Equus melkiensis	Northern Algeria and Morocco	Disappeared c. 4000 BCE. Related to the African wild ass and sometimes considered the same as E. a. atlanticus.
Quagga	Equus quagga quagga	Cape Province, South Africa	Last seen in the wild between 1860 and 1865. The last individual died in captivity in Europe in 1883. It was hunted to extinction.

Possibly extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Nubian wild ass	Equus africanus africanus	Nubian Desert	Considered possibly extinct as it has only been infrequently seen since it was sighted in Ethiopia's Barka Valley and Eritrea during the 1970s. The subspecies is threatened by hunting for food and traditional medicine, competition with livestock for vegetation and water, and possibly interbreeding with domestic donkeys. Some haplotypes in domestic donkeys are also found in the Nubian wild ass, either suggesting that domestic donkeys are partially descended from the Nubian wild ass, or that there has been interbreeding between Nubian wild asses and feral donkeys.

Rhinoceroses (family Rhinocerotidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
	Ceratotherium mauritanicum	Northern and eastern Africa	Though more known from the Pliocene and Pleistocene, it survived into the early Holocene of Morocco and Tunisia and is commonly depicted in North African rock art hunting scenes up to the Bronze Age. It was extremely similar to the northern white rhinoceros C. simum cottoni in size, proportions, and dentition, and has been treated as its direct ancestor, a subspecies (though cottoni is now recognized as a subspecies of C. simum itself), or synonymous with it.
Southern black rhinoceros	Diceros bicornis bicornis	Southwestern Africa	Disappeared from the Cape Colony in the mid-19th century. The IUCN considers the south-western black rhinoceros (D. b. occidentalis) from Namibia and Angola, used to re-stock South Africa, to be the same subspecies. If this is followed, the taxon D. b. bicornis is not extinct.
Western black rhinoceros	Diceros bicornis longipes	Burkina Faso to South Sudan	An investigation into the last known location in Cameroon in 2006 found abundant evidence of wildlife poaching and no sign of rhinoceroses except that faked by local rhinoceros monitors. There have been no sightings or other evidence afterward.

Possibly extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
North-eastern black rhinoceros	Diceros bicornis brucii	Horn of Africa to eastern Sudan and Bahr el Ghazal	Considered probably extinct by 2011.

Extinct in the wild

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Northern white rhinoceros	Ceratotherium simum cottoni	Upper Chari, Ubangi, and White Nile river basins	The last four wild animals were sighted in 2006 and the last indirect sign of their presence was detected in 2007, both under an uptick of poaching in the region. In 2009, the last four captive rhinos were moved from the Safari Park Dvůr Králové in the Czech Republic to a private reserve in Kenya, outside of the subspecies's recent range, but the two males died without breeding. The last remaining individuals are a mother and a daughter and attempts at artificial insemination have been unsuccessful.

Even-toed ungulates (order Artiodactyla)

Pigs (family Suidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Cape warthog	Phacochoerus aethiopicus aethiopicus	Cape Province, South Africa	Last known individual killed in 1871.

Right and bowhead whales (family Balaenidae)

Locally extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
North Atlantic right whale	Eubalaena glacialis	North Atlantic and western Mediterranean Sea	Possibly calved in the Mediterranean in ancient times. Probable remains were found in Roman archaeological sites at Tetouan and Ceuta dated to 180-396 and 226-440 CE, respectively, and an individual was sighted off Algiers in 1888. A calving area existed in Western Sahara in recent times, but was declared extinct in 1998. The species is still present sporadically in Macaronesia, where it visits and possibly calves near the Açores and Canary Islands.

Gray whales (family Eschrichtiidae)

Locally extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Gray whale	Eschrichtius robustus	North Atlantic, Mediterranean, and northern Pacific Ocean	Possibly calved in the Mediterranean in ancient times. Remains were found in Tetouan dating to 71–245 CE. A vagrant from the North Pacific population was seen off the coast of Namibia in May 2013.

True deer (family Cervidae)

Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Megaceroides algericus	Northern Maghreb	Most recent remains dated to 4691-4059 BCE in Bizmoune, Morocco.

Locally extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Persian fallow deer	Dama mesopotamica	Middle East	Deer, known as hnn in the Egyptian language, are depicted in art from the Predynastic to the Ptolemaic period, and remains of Persian fallow deer have been found in archaeological sites of the eastern Nile Delta dating mostly to the 14th-10th centuries BCE. However, the autochthonous nature of these animals is controversial, as is the presence of other deer species like red deer or chital in Ancient Egypt.

Cattle, goats, antelopes, and others (family Bovidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Bubal hartebeest	Alcelaphus buselaphus buselaphus	North Africa and southern Levant	Last animal in Tunisia was killed in 1902 near Tataouine, in Algeria south of the Chott Ech Chergui in the 1920s, and in Morocco in Missour in 1925. The subspecies was also present in Egypt along the Nile and in the oases of the western desert until the early Middle Ages.
Bond's springbok	Antidorcas bondi	Southern Africa	Most recent remains at Kruger Cave, South Africa dated to 5680-5560 BCE.
North African aurochs	Bos primigenius mauritanicus	North Africa	African aurochs survived for the longest in Egypt; in Thebes until 1175 BCE and the Delta (Buto) until the Roman era. Hunting, habitat modification for agriculture, and competition with domestic cattle may have caused its decrease in numbers and ultimate disappearance. It was assumed from genetic and morphological evidence that the North African aurochs underwent indigenous domestication near the onset of the Holocene, but this has been rejected by other authors in favor of introduction of taurine cattle from the Ancient Near East, followed by indicine cattle at a later time. Nevertheless, there was extensive hybridization between domestic taurine cattle and African aurochs, and some African cattle breeds could descend from it to some extent, particularly in West Africa where the introgression of indicine cattle is low.
	Caprinae indet. (Makapania?)	South Africa mountains	Most recent remains at Colwinton Shelter, South Africa dated to 4360-4280 BCE. The extinction coincided with changes in vegetation leading to the replacement of grazing ungulates for browsers.
	Damaliscus hypsodon	Kenya and Tanzania	Most recent remains dated to after 8902-8638 BCE in Kisese II, Tanzania.
Bluebuck	Hippotragus leucophaeus	Overberg, South Africa	Fossil evidence and rock art suggests that the species was more broadly spread around southern Africa in the Pleistocene and early Holocene, but its range contracted because of climate-driven vegetation change until it was reduced to just 4300 km east of Cape Town. It finally disappeared around 1800 CE as a result of hunting, competition with livestock, and habitat loss and fragmentation caused by agriculture.
Roberts' lechwe	Kobus leche robertsi	Luongo and Kalungwishi drainage systems, Luapula, Zambia	Last seen between 1980 and 1985.
Giant wildebeest	Megalotragus priscus	Southern and possibly eastern Africa	Most recent remains at Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa dated to 6442-6210 BCE.
Kenya oribi	Ourebia ourebi kenyae	Lower slopes of Mount Kenya, Kenya
African giant buffalo	Syncerus antiquus	Africa	Widespread through the continent in the Pleistocene, it became restricted to North Africa in the Holocene and survived until 3060-2470 BCE. Increased aridification and competition with domestic cattle have both been suggested as causes of its extinction.

Extinct in the wild

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Mohrr gazelle	Nanger dama mohrr	Northwestern Sahara	Disappeared from the wild in 1968, being last seen in Western Sahara. The first reintroduction program began in Senegal in 1984 and was followed by others in Morocco and Tunisia. The Tunisian project ended in failure with the death of the last animal in 2020.
Scimitar oryx	Oryx dammah	Fringes of the Sahara	The last wild population in Chad disappeared between 1988 and 1990. A reintroduction program began in Tunisia in 1985.

Locally extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Arabian oryx	Oryx leucoryx	Arabian Peninsula	Probably lived in the north of Egypt's eastern desert during historical times.

Birds (class Aves)

Landfowl (order Galliformes)

Guineafowl (family Numididae)

Possibly extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Moroccan guineafowl	Numida meleagris sabyi	Between the Oum er Rbia and Sebou rivers of Morocco	Last recorded with certainty in the wild in the 1950s. It succumbed to habitat destruction and over-hunting. Reports of a captive population in the 1980s are unsubstantiated.

Bustards (order Otidiformes)

Bustards (family Otididae)

Possibly extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Moroccan bustard	Ardeotis arabs lynesi	Western Morocco	Last recorded at Lakes Merzouga and Tamezguidat between 1987 and 1993. All Arabian bustard subspecies declined due to hunting and habitat destruction.

Shorebirds (order Charadriiformes)

Oystercatchers (family Haematopodidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Canary Islands oystercatcher	Haematopus meadewaldoi	Canary Islands to the coast of Senegal	Last recorded in Senegal between 1968 and 1981. Its decline was probably a result of overharvesting of intertidal invertebrates and disturbance by people, although predation by rats and cats has also been implicated.

Sandpipers (order Scolopacidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Slender-billed curlew	Numenius tenuirostris	North Africa and Western Eurasia	The species breeds in Central Asia (the steppes of northern Kazakhstan and southern Siberia) and winters in the Mediterranean area and south Arabia, but has declined due to intense hunting in the wintering grounds and habitat destruction in the breeding grounds. Slender-billed curlews were regular visitors to Merja Zerga, Morocco until 1995.

Auks (family Alcidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Great auk	Pinguinus impennis	Northern Atlantic and western Mediterranean	A bone found in El Harhoura 2, Morocco was dated to 5050-3850 BCE. This is the second southernmost record of this species in the eastern Atlantic, after another bone from Madeira. The species became extinct globally in 1852.

Hawks and relatives (order Accipitriformes)

Hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures (family Accipitridae)

Locally extinct

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Spanish imperial eagle	Aquila adalberti	Southwestern Iberia and northwestern Morocco	Could have disappeared as a breeder from Morocco before 1950, though two adult pairs were seen in Tassaoti, Oued Laou and the mouth of the Moulouya river in 1977. Vagrant juveniles still visit the northern part of the country from the Guadalquivir marshes and are sometimes killed in unprotected power lines.
Red kite	Milvus milvus	Europe and the Mediterranean region	Last bred in Morocco in 2004, although small numbers can be seen in the winter. Its presence in other African countries is at best uncertain.

Passerines (order Passeriformes)

Cisticolas and allies (family Cisticolidae)

Reptiles (class Reptilia)

Squamates (order Squamata)

Plated lizards (family Gerrhosauridae)

Amphibians (class Amphibia)

Frogs (order Anura)

African torrent frogs (family Petropedetidae)

Possibly extinct

True toads (family Bufonidae)

Possibly extinct

Extinct in the wild

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Kihansi spray toad	Nectophrynoides asperginis	Kihansi Falls, Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania	Last recorded in the wild in 2004, with an unconfirmed report in 2005. The species declined due to drought, chytridiomycosis, pesticide use in maize agriculture, and possibly other causes. Nevertheless, thousands exist in captivity and a reintroduction program began with large numbers in 2012.

Ray-finned fish (class Actinopterygii)

Minnows and allies (order Cypriniformes)

Carps, minnows, and relatives (family Cyprinidae)

Common name	Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
	Labeobarbus microbarbis	Lake Luhondo, Rwanda	Known from a single individual collected c. 1937, it is presumed to have become extinct in the 1950s after the introduction of Tilapia and Haplochromis to the lake. However the validity of the species is doubtful and could be a hybrid of Barbus and Varicorhinus instead.
Giant Atlas barbel	Labeobarbus reinii	Northwestern Morocco	Last recorded in 2001. The rivers it inhabited have been affected by pollution and damming, but the precise causes of extinction are poorly understood.
Tunisian barb	Luciobarbus antinorii	Chott el Djerid, Tunisia	Last collected in 1989. It could have disappeared due to excessive water substraction.
	Luciobarbus nasus	Ksob river drainage, Morocco	Last recorded in 1874. The river has been affected by pollution and damming, but the precise causes of extinction are poorly understood.

Salmon, trout and relatives (order Salmoniformes)

Salmon, trout and relatives (family Salmonidae)

Toothcarps (order Cyprinodontiformes)

Livebearers and relatives (family Poeciliidae)

Insects (class Insecta)

Butterflies and moths (order Lepidoptera)

Gossamer-winged butterflies (family Lycaenidae)

Bark lice, book lice, and parasitic lice (order Psocodea)

Family Linognathidae

Possibly extinct

Ostracods (class Ostracoda)

Order Podocopida

Family Candonidae

Scientific name	Range	Comments	Pictures
Namibcypris costata	Southern Kaokoveld, Namibia	Last recorded in 1987.

See also

• List of Madagascar and Indian Ocean Island animals extinct in the Holocene
• List of Macaronesian animals extinct in the Holocene
• List of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha animals extinct in the Holocene
• Lists of extinct species
• List of extinct bird species since 1500
• Extinct in the wild
• Lazarus taxon

Notes

1. The source gives "11,700 calendar yr b2k (before CE 2000)". But "BP" means "before CE 1950". Therefore, the Holocene began 11,650 BP. Doing the math, that is c. 9700 BCE.
2. "...and we are displeased because elephants have been removed from Libya, because lions have disappeared from Thessaly, because hippopotamoi have been gotten rid from the marshes of the Nile."
3. This study did not use Syrian brown bears for comparison.

References

1. Walker, Mike; Johnsen, Sigfus; Rasmussen, Sune Olander; Popp, Trevor; Steffensen, Jorgen-Peder; Gibrard, Phil; Hoek, Wim; Lowe, John; Andrews, John; Bjo Rck, Svante; Cwynar, Les C.; Hughen, Konrad; Kersahw, Peter; Kromer, Bernd; Litt, Thomas; Lowe, David J.; Nakagawa, Takeshi; Newnham, Rewi; Schwander, Jakob (2009). "Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records" (PDF). Journal of Quaternary Science. 24 (1): 3–17. Bibcode:2009JQS....24....3W. doi:10.1002/jqs.1227. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-11-04. Retrieved 2022-04-24.
2. ^ Happold, D.C.D. & Kalina, J., Ed. (2013) Mammals of Africa: Introductory chapters and Afrotheria. Bloomsbury, 352 pages.
3. ^ Riemer, H. & Pöllath, N. (2007) Desert animals in the eastern Sahara: status, economic significance, and cultural reflection in antiquity. Proceedings of an interdisciplinary ACACIA workshop held at the University of Cologne December 14-15, 2007
4. Gowers, William (1948). "African Elephants and Ancient Authors". African Affairs. 47 (188): 173–180. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a093647. JSTOR 718306.
5. ^ BollóK, Á., & Koncz, I. (2020). Sixth- and Seventh-Century Elephant Ivory Finds from the Carpathian Basin. The Sources, Circulation and Value of Ivory in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Archaeologiai Értesítő, Vol. 1: 39-68.
6. Braddock, A.C. (2023) Implication: An ecocritical dictionary of art history. Yale University Press, 256 pages.
7. "Scientific Illustration". Scientific Illustration. Retrieved 2019-04-18.
8. Kerbis Peterhans, J. & Lavrenchenko, L. (2008). "Nilopegamys plumbeus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T40766A10363474. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T40766A10363474.en.
9. ^ Richardson, M. (2023) Threatened and recently extinct vertebrates of the world: A biogeographic approach. Cambridge University Press, 750 pages.
10. ^ Turvey, Sam (2009). Holocene extinctions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953509-5. Retrieved 29 February 2012.
11. Woodman, Neal; Ikram, Salima; Rowland, Joanne (2021-04-07). "A new addition to the embalmed fauna of ancient Egypt: Güldenstaedt's White-toothed Shrew, Crocidura gueldenstaedtii (Pallas, 1811) (Mammalia: Eulipotyphla: Soricidae)". PLOS ONE. 16 (4): e0249377. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1649377W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0249377. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 8026016. PMID 33826664.
12. Bartosiewicz, L. (2009) A lion’s share of attention: archaeozoology and the historical record. Acta Archaeologica, 60(1), 275-289.
13. ^ Rossi, L., Scuzzarella, C. M., & Angelici, F. M. (2020). "Extinct or Perhaps Surviving Relict Populations of Big Cats: Their Controversial Stories and Implications for Conservation". In Problematic Wildlife II (pp. 393-417). Springer, Cham.
14. ^ Kitchener, A. C., Breitenmoser-Würsten, C., Eizirik, E., Gentry, A., Werdelin, L., Wilting, A., ... & Tobe, S. (2017). A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group. Cat News.
15. ^ Miththapala, S., Seidensticker, J., & O'Brien, S. J. (1996). Phylogeographic subspecies recognition in leopards (Panthera pardus): molecular genetic variation. Conservation Biology, 10(4), 1115-1132.
16. Gopalakrishnan, Shyam; Sinding, Mikkel-Holger S.; Ramos-Madrigal, Jazmín; Niemann, Jonas; Samaniego Castruita, Jose A.; Vieira, Filipe G.; Carøe, Christian; de Montero, Marc Manuel; Kuderna, Lukas; Serres, Aitor; González-Basallote, Víctor Manuel; Liu, Yan-Hu; Wang, Guo-Dong; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Mirarab, Siavash; Fernandes, Carlos; Gaubert, Philippe; Koepfli, Klaus-Peter; Budd, Jane; Rueness, Eli Knispel; Heide-Jørgensen, Mads Peter; Petersen, Bent; Sicheritz-Ponten, Thomas; Bachmann, Lutz; Wiig, Øystein; Hansen, Anders J.; Gilbert, M. Thomas P. (2018). "Interspecific gene flow shaped the evolution of the genus Canis". Current Biology. 28 (21): 3441–3449.e5. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.08.041. PMC 6224481. PMID 30344120.
17. ^ Hamdine, W. et al. (1998) "Histoire récente de l'ours brun au Maghreb". C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, Sciences de la Vie / Life Sciences, Vol. 321, pp. 565-570.
18. ^ Ouchaou, B., & Bougariane, B. (2015). Les extinctions totales et régionales des grands mammifères durant le Quaternaire terminal au Maroc. Travaux de l’Institut Scientifique, 8, 5-20.
19. Calvignac, S., Hughes, S., Tougard, C., Michaux, J., Thevenot, M., Philippe, M., ... & Hänni, C. (2008). Ancient DNA evidence for the loss of a highly divergent brown bear clade during historical times. Molecular Ecology, 17(8), 1962-1970.
20. ^ Moehlman, P. D. (2002). Equids--zebras, asses, and horses: status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN.
21. ^ Kimura, B., Marshall, F. B., Chen, S., Rosenbom, S., Moehlman, P. D., Tuross, N., ... & Mulligan, C. J. (2011). "Ancient DNA from Nubian and Somali wild ass provides insights into donkey ancestry and domestication". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 278(1702), 50-57.
22. Guagnin, M., Shipton, C., el‐Dossary, S., al‐Rashid, M., Moussa, F., Stewart, M., ... & Petraglia, M. D. (2018). "Rock art provides new evidence on the biogeography of kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis), wild dromedary, aurochs (Bos primigenius) and African wild ass (Equus africanus) in the early and middle Holocene of north‐western Arabia". Journal of Biogeography, 45 (4), 727-740.
23. Groves, C. (2013). Subgenus Asinus African Wild Ass in The Mammals of Africa Vol. V. (eds. Kingdon, J., Happold, DCD, Butynski, TM, Hoffmann, M., Happold, M. & Kalina, J.) 414–417.
24. Kingdon, Jonathan (1997) The Kingdon field guide to African mammals. Helm, London
25. Youcef, S. A. M. (2020). African origins of modern asses as seen from paleontology and DNA: what about the Atlas wild ass?. Geobios, 58, 73-84.
26. ^ Faith, J.T. (2014) Late Pleistocene and Holocene mammal extinctions on continental Africa. Earth-Science Reviews, 128, 105-121.
27. Ludovic Orlando; Jessica L. Metcalf; Maria T. Alberdi; Miguel Telles Antunes-Dominique Bonjean; Marcel Otte; Fabiana Martin; et al. (2009). "Revising the recent evolutionary history of equids using ancient DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 106 (51): 21754–21759. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10621754O. doi:10.1073/pnas.0903672106. PMC 2799835. PMID 20007379.
28. Bryden, H. (1889). Kloof and Karoo. London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 393–403. ASIN B00CNE0EZC.
29. Rookmaaker, K. (2013). Genus Ceratotherium White Rhinoceros in The Mammals of Africa Vol. V. (eds. Kingdon, J., Happold, DCD, Butynski, TM, Hoffmann, M., Happold, M. & Kalina, J.) pp. 445-446.
30. Roset, J. P., & Harbi-Riahi, M. (2007). El Akarit: Un site archéologique du Paléolithique moyen dans le sud de la Tunisie. Paris, Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations2007.
31. Rookmaaker, L.C. & Groves, C.P. (1977). "The extinct Cape rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis bicornis (Linnaeus, 1758)". In Szugetierkundliche Mitteilwnge, pg. 117-126.
32. Emslie, R. (2020). "Diceros bicornis ssp. bicornis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T39318A45814419. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T39318A45814419.en. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
33. Emslie, R. (2020). "Diceros bicornis ssp. longipes". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T39319A45814470. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T39319A45814470.en. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
34. Groves, C. & Grubb, P. (2011) Ungulate Taxonomy. Johns Hopkins University Press, 336 pages.
35. ^ Emslie, R. (2020). "Ceratotherium simum ssp. cottoni". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T4183A45813838. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T4183A45813838.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
36. Khayale, C., Omondi, P., Kariuki, L., Muruthi, P., Gichohi, N., Stejskal, J., ... & Amin, R. (2021). "Kenya's first White Rhino Conservation and Management Action Plan". Pachyderm, 62, 112-118.
37. Grubb, P., & d'Huart, J.P. (2010). "Rediscovery of the Cape warthog Phacochoerus aethiopicus: a review". Journal of East African Natural History, 99(2), 77-102.
38. ^ Ana S. L. Rodrigues; Anne Charpentier; Darío Bernal-Casasola; Armelle Gardeisen; Carlos Nores; José Antonio Pis Millán; Krista McGrath; Camilla F. Speller (July 11, 2018). "Forgotten Mediterranean calving grounds of grey and North Atlantic right whales: evidence from Roman archaeological records". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 285 (1882). doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.0961. PMC 6053924. PMID 30051821.
39. Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Politi, E., Bayed, A., Beaubrun, P. C., & Knowlton, A. (1998). A winter cetacean survey off southern Morocco, with a special emphasis on right whales. Reports of the International Whaling Commission, 48, 547-550.
40. Silva, M. A., Steiner, L., Cascao, I., Cruz, M. J., Prieto, R., Cole, T., ... & Baumgartner, M. (2012). Winter sighting of a known western North Atlantic right whale in the Azores. J. Cetacean Res. Manage., 12(1), 65-69.
41. Científicos piden ayuda para encontrar en aguas canarias a una cría de ballena franca extinta en el Atlántico.
42. Cooke, J.G. (2018). "Eschrichtius robustus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T8097A50353881. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T8097A50353881.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
43. Hamilton, Alex (October 8, 2015). "The Gray Whale Sneaks Back into the Atlantic, Two Centuries Later". WNYC. Retrieved 2019-10-28.
44. Fernandez, P. et al. (2015). The last occurrence of Megaceroides algericus Lyddekker, 1890 (Mammalia, Cervidae) during the middle Holocene in the cave of Bizmoune (Morocco, Essaouira region). Quaternary International, 374, 154-167.
45. Kitagawa, C. (2008). The status of fallow deer in Ancient Egypt: autochthonous or introduced?. MOM Éditions, 49(1), 541-552.
46. Houlihan, P.F. (1986). Some remarks on Deer (Cervidae) in Ancient Egypt. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol 73(1).
47. Tsahar E, Izhaki I, Lev-Yadun S, Bar-Oz G (2009). "Distribution and Extinction of Ungulates during the Holocene of the Southern Levant". PLoS ONE 4(4): e5316. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005316
48. ^ Extinct and vanishing mammals of the Old World (1945) by Harper, Francis, from the Internet Archive
49. Beierkuhnlein, C. (2015). Bos primigenius in Ancient Egyptian art–historical evidence for the continuity of occurrence and ecology of an extinct key species. Frontiers of Biogeography, 7(3).
50. Linseele, V. (2004). "Size and size change of the African aurochs during the Pleistocene and Holocene". Journal of African Archaeology. 2 (2): 165–185. doi:10.3213/1612-1651-10026.
51. ^ Pitt, D.; Sevane, N.; Nicolazzi, E.L.; MacHugh, D.E.; Park, S.D.; Colli, L.; Martinez, R.; Bruford, M.W. & Orozco-terWengel, P. (2019). "Domestication of cattle: Two or three events?". Evolutionary Applications. 12 (1): 123–136. Bibcode:2019EvApp..12..123P. doi:10.1111/eva.12674. PMC 6304694. PMID 30622640.
52. Meghen, C.; MacHugh, D.E.; Bradley, D.G. "Genetic characterization and West African cattle". fao.org. Archived from the original on 26 February 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
53. Meghen, C.; MacHugh, D.E.; Bradley, D.G. "Genetic characterization and West African cattle". fao.org. Archived from the original on 26 February 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
54. IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2017). "Kobus leche ssp. robertsi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T11038A50190034. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T11038A50190034.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
55. ^ "Mhorr Gazelle declared extinct in Tunisia"
56. Moreno, E., Sane, A., Benzal, J., Ibáñez, B., Sanz-Zuasti, J., & Espeso, G. (2012). "Changes in habitat structure may explain Decrease in reintroduced mohor gazelle population in the Guembeul Fauna Reserve, Senegal". Animals, 2(3), 347-360.
57. Iyengar, A., Gilbert, T., Woodfine, T., Knowles, J. M., Diniz, F. M., Brenneman, R. A., ... & Maclean, N. (2007). "Remnants of ancient genetic diversity preserved within captive groups of scimitar‐horned oryx (Oryx dammah)". Molecular Ecology, 16(12), 2436-2449.
58. Woodfine, T., & Gilbert, T. (2016). "The fall and rise of the scimitar-horned oryx: a case study of ex-situ conservation and reintroduction in practice". In Antelope Conservation: From Diagnosis to Action, 280-296.
59. ^ Hume, J.P. (2017). Extinct Birds. Bloomsbury Publishing.
60. BirdLife International (2021). "Haematopus meadewaldoi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22693621A205917399. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22693621A205917399.en. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
61. BirdLife International (2018). "Numenius tenuirostris". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T22693185A131111201. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22693185A131111201.en. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
62. Campmas, E., Laroulandie, V., Michel, P., Amani, F., Nespoulet, R., & Mohammed, A. E. H. (2010). 22 "A great auk (Pinguinus impennis) in North Africa: discovery of". In Birds in Archaeology: Proceedings of the 6th Meeting of the ICAZ Bird Working Group in Groningen (23.8-27.8. 2008) (Vol. 12, p. 233). Barkhuis.
63. Pieper, H. (1985). The fossil land birds of Madeira and Porto Santo. Bocagiana. Museu de História Natural do Funchal, Nº88.
64. BirdLife International (2021). "Pinguinus impennis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22694856A205919631. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22694856A205919631.en. Retrieved 6 April 2023.
65. Fernandez Haeger, J. & Jordano Barbudo, D. (2004) Las mariposas del monte mediterráneo. Pgs. 61-70.
66. ^ Ansede, Manuel (25 December 2015). "Las águilas imperiales vuelven a Marruecos y mueren electrocutadas". El País.
67. Ministerio para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto Demográfico.
68. BirdLife International (2020). "Milvus milvus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T22695072A181651010. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22695072A181651010.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
69. Bates, M.F.; Jacobsen, N. (2018). "Tetradactylus eastwoodae". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T21663A115653635. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T21663A115653635.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
70. IUCN
71. IUCN
72. IUCN
73. FishBase team RMCA.; Geelhand, D. (2016). "Barbus microbarbis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T61247A47242030. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T61247A47242030.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
74. Freyhof, J. & Ford, M. (2022). "Labeobarbus reinii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2022: e.T60765A137272327. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T60765A137272327.en. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
75. Freyhof, J. & Ford, M. (2022). "Luciobarbus antinorii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2022: e.T60731A137272558. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T60731A137272558.en. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
76. Freyhof, J. & Ford, M. (2022). "Luciobarbus nasus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2022: e.T217675561A137276808. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T217675561A137276808.en. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
77. Marini, A. & Talbi, M. (2008). Desertification and Risk Analysis Using High and Medium Resolution Satellite Data: Training Workshop on Mapping Desertification, Springer Science & Business Media, 274 pages.
78. Hanssens, M. (2004). "Aplocheilichthys sp. nov. 'Naivasha'". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004: e.T61225A12451418. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T61225A12451418.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
79. Williams, M.C. (2020). "Deloneura immaculata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T6331A168301470. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T6331A168301470.en. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
80. Cockburn, K.N.A. (2020). "Lepidochrysops hypopolia". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T11537A168301541. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T11537A168301541.en. Retrieved 16 November 2021.
81. Rózsa, L., & Vas, Z. (2015). Co-extinct and critically co-endangered species of parasitic lice, and conservation-induced extinction: should lice be reintroduced to their hosts?. Oryx, 49(1), 107-110.
82. Inland Water Crustacean Specialist Group (1996). "Namibcypris costata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 1996: e.T14316A4431325. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T14316A4431325.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.

External links

• The Extinction Website
• IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

• Holocene extinctions by region
• Extinct animals of Africa
• Lists of extinct animals by continent
• Lists of animals of Africa