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Mary McLeod Bethune
1949 portrait
Born	Mary Jane McLeod (1875-07-10)July 10, 1875 Mayesville, South Carolina, U.S.
Died	May 18, 1955(1955-05-18) (aged 79) Daytona Beach, Florida, U.S.
Occupations	Educator philanthropist humanitarian civil rights activist
Spouse	Albertus Bethune ​ ​(m. 1898; sep. 1907)​
Children	1

Mary Jane McLeod Bethune (née McLeod; July 10, 1875 – May 18, 1955) was an American educator, philanthropist, humanitarian, womanist, and civil rights activist. Bethune founded the National Council of Negro Women in 1935, established the organization's flagship journal Aframerican Women's Journal, and presided for a myriad of African-American women's organizations including the National Association for Colored Women and the National Youth Administration's Negro Division.

She started a private school for African-American students which later became Bethune-Cookman University. She was the sole African American woman officially a part of the US delegation that created the United Nations charter, and she held a leadership position for the American Women's Voluntary Services founded by Alice Throckmorton McLean. Bethune wrote prolifically, publishing in several periodicals from 1924 to 1955.

After working on the presidential campaign for Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932, she was appointed as a national advisor and worked with Roosevelt to create the Federal Council on Colored Affairs, also known as the Black Cabinet. Honors include the designation of her home in Daytona Beach as a National Historic Landmark and a 1974 statue as "the first monument to honor an African American and a woman in a public park in Washington, D.C." She was called the "First Lady of Negro America" by Ebony magazine in April 1949.

Early life and education

Mary Jane McLeod was born in 1875 in a small log cabin near Mayesville, South Carolina, on a rice and cotton farm in Sumter County. She was the fifteenth of seventeen children born to Sam and Patsy (née McIntosh) McLeod, both former slaves. Patsy McLeod worked after emancipation for her former owner, earning enough to buy five acres from him. There, Sam and their sons built the log cabin in which Mary was born. McLeod grew up hearing stories from her maternal grandmother, Sophie, about resistance to slavery, and both Sophie and Patsy told Mary that she was special. Mary credited them both with inspiring her work toward equality.

McLeod recalled noticing racial inequality as a child, observing that the Black community had access to less material wealth and opportunity. She particularly remembered visiting the home of the Wilsons—the family that had enslaved her mother—where she explored a play house while Patsy worked. Mary picked up a book, and one of the Wilson girls admonished her with "Put down that book, you can't read." McLeod later cited the incident as contributing to her desire for literacy and education.

When she was twelve, McLeod saw a white mob attack and nearly hang a Black man. The man had refused to blow a match out for a White man and then had shoved him to the ground. As McLeod watched, the mob nearly hanged the Black man, stopped at the last moment by the sheriff. McLeod recalled later learning about both the terrifying effects of White violence and the value of allying with some White people, those she called "calm men of authority".

In October 1886, McLeod began attending Mayesville's one-room Black schoolhouse, Trinity Mission School, which was run by the Presbyterian Board of Missions of Freedmen. The school was five miles from her home, and she walked there and back. Not all her siblings attended, so she taught her family what she had learned each day. Her teacher, Emma Jane Wilson, became a significant mentor in her life.

Wilson had attended Scotia Seminary (now Barber–Scotia College). She helped McLeod attend the same school on a scholarship, which McLeod did from 1888 to 1894. She attended Dwight L. Moody's Institute for Home and Foreign Missions in Chicago (now the Moody Bible Institute) from 1894 to 1895, hoping to become a missionary in Africa. Told by the Presbyterian mission board, where she applied to become a missionary, that Black missionaries were not needed, she planned to teach, as education was a prime goal among African Americans.

Marriage and family

McLeod married Albertus Bethune in 1898. The Bethunes moved to Savannah, Georgia, where she did social work until they moved to Florida. They had a son named Albert McLeod Bethune, Sr. A visiting Presbyterian minister, Coyden Harold Uggams, persuaded the couple to relocate to Palatka, Florida, to run a mission school. The Bethunes moved in 1899; Mary ran the mission school and began an outreach to prisoners. Albertus left the family in 1907 and relocated to South Carolina. The couple never divorced, and Albertus died in 1918 from tuberculosis.

Teaching career

Foundations with Lucy Craft Laney

Bethune worked as a teacher briefly at her former school in Sumter County. In 1896, she began teaching at Haines Normal and Industrial Institute in Augusta, Georgia, which was part of a Presbyterian mission organized by northern congregations. It was founded and run by Lucy Craft Laney. As the daughter of former slaves, Laney ran her school with a Christian missionary zeal, emphasizing character and practical education for girls. She also accepted the boys who showed up eager to learn. Laney's mission was to imbue Christian moral education in her students to arm them for their life challenges. Of her year at Laney's school, Bethune said:

I was so impressed with her fearlessness, her amazing touch in every respect, an energy that seemed inexhaustible and her mighty power to command respect and admiration from her students and all who knew her. She handled her domain with the art of a master.

Bethune adopted many of Laney's educational philosophies, including her emphasis on educating girls and women to improve the conditions of Black people; Bethune's approach added a focus on political activism. After one year at Haines, Bethune was transferred by the Presbyterian mission to the Kindell Institute in Sumter, South Carolina, where she met her husband.

School in Daytona

After her marriage and move to Florida, Bethune became determined to start a school for girls. Bethune moved from Palatka to Daytona because it had more economic opportunity; it had become a popular tourist destination, and businesses were thriving. In October 1904, she rented a small house for $11.00 per month. She made benches and desks from discarded crates and acquired other items through charity. Bethune started the Educational and Industrial Training School for Negro Girls. She initially had six students—five girls and her son Albert. The school bordered Daytona's dump. She raised money by selling homemade sweet potato pies and ice cream to crews of local workers, gathering enough to purchase additional dump land. She hired workers to build the brick building Faith Hall, paying them in part with free tuition.

In the early days of her school, the students made ink for pens from elderberry juice and pencils from burned wood; they asked local businesses for furniture. Bethune wrote later, "I considered cash money as the smallest part of my resources. I had faith in a loving God, faith in myself, and a desire to serve." The school received donations of money, equipment, and labor from local Black churches. Within a year, Bethune was teaching over 30 girls at the school. After two years of operation, 250 girls were enrolled.

Bethune also courted wealthy White organizations, such as the ladies' Palmetto Club. She invited influential White men to sit on her school board of trustees, gaining participation by James Gamble (of Procter & Gamble), Ransom Eli Olds (of Oldsmobile and REO MotorCompany) and Thomas H. White (of White Sewing Machines). When Booker T. Washington of the Tuskegee Institute visited in 1912, he advised her of the importance of gaining support from White benefactors for funding, suggesting a few ways of doing so.

The rigorous curriculum had the girls rise at 5:30 a.m. for Bible study. The classes in home economics and industrial skills such as dressmaking, millinery, cooking, and other crafts emphasized a life of self-sufficiency. Students' days ended at 9 p.m. Soon Bethune added science and business courses, then high school-level math, English, and foreign languages. Bethune always sought donations to keep her school operating; as she traveled, she was fundraising. A donation of $62,000 by John D. Rockefeller helped, as did her friendship with Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, who gave her entry to a progressive network.

Beginning in 1923, Daytona School merged with the coeducational Cookman Institute; run by the Methodist church, the institute was the first Black college in Florida. Bethune became president, at a time when Black women rarely headed colleges. The merger completed in 1925 and formed Daytona Cookman Collegiate Institute, a coeducational junior college. Through the Great Depression, the school, renamed Bethune-Cookman College in 1931, continued to operate and met the educational standards of the State of Florida. Throughout the 1930s, Bethune and civil rights advocate Blake R. Van Leer worked with fellow Florida institutions to lobby for federal funding.

From 1936 to 1942, Bethune had to cut back her time as president because of her duties in Washington, D.C. Funding declined during this period of her absence. Nevertheless, by 1941, the college had developed a four-year curriculum and achieved full college status. By 1942, Bethune gave up the presidency, as her health was adversely affected by her many responsibilities. On September 19, 1942, she gave the address at the Los Angeles, California, launching ceremony for the Liberty ship Booker T. Washington, a ceremony in which Marian Anderson christened the ship.

Impact on Daytona Beach community

In the early 1900s, Daytona Beach lacked a hospital that would help people of color. Bethune had the idea to start a hospital after one of her students got appendicitis and was initially refused treatment at the local hospital. Bethune convinced the doctors to treat her student and left determined to open a hospital.

She found a cabin near the school, and through sponsors helping her raise money, she purchased it for five thousand dollars. In 1911, Bethune opened the first Black hospital in Daytona Beach, naming it McLeod Hospital after her parents. It started with two beds and, within a few years, held twenty. Both White and Black physicians worked at the hospital, along with Bethune's student nurses. This hospital went on to save many Black lives within the twenty years that it operated.

During that time, both Black and White people in the community relied on help from McLeod Hospital. After an explosion at a nearby construction site, the hospital took in injured Black workers. The hospital and its nurses were also praised for their efforts with the 1918 influenza outbreak. During this outbreak, the hospital was full and had to overflow into the school's auditorium. In 1931, Daytona's public hospital, Halifax, agreed to open a separate hospital for people of color. Black people would not fully integrate into the public hospital's main location until the 1960s.

Bethune made Daytona School's library accessible to the public, it became Florida's first free library accessible to Black Floridians. She hosted a weekly story hour, which hundreds of children from the county attended, and ran a boys' club.

Concerned by a lack of affordable housing for Black people, Bethune leveraged her status as president to lobby for improved housing access. She was appointed to the city's housing board—becoming its only Black member—and she successfully pushed for a public housing project built near her school's campus.

Career as a public leader

Suffrage activism

After the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment, which enacted women's suffrage, Bethune continued her efforts to help Black people gain access to the polls. She solicited donations to help Black voters pay poll taxes, provided tutoring for voter registration literacy tests at Daytona Normal and Industrial Institute, and planned mass voter registration drives.

National Association of Colored Women

In 1896, the National Association of Colored Women (NACW) was formed to promote the needs of Black women. Bethune served as the Florida chapter president of the NACW from 1917 to 1925. She worked to register Black voters, which was resisted by White society and had been made almost impossible by various obstacles in Florida law and practices controlled by White administrators. She was threatened by members of the resurgent Ku Klux Klan in those years. Bethune also served as the president of the Southeastern Federation of Colored Women's Clubs from 1920 to 1925, which worked to improve opportunities for Black women.

She was elected national president of the NACW in 1924. While the organization struggled to raise funds for regular operations, Bethune envisioned acquiring a headquarters and hiring a professional executive secretary; she implemented this when NACW bought a property at 1318 Vermont Avenue in Washington, D.C.

Gaining a national reputation, in 1928, Bethune was invited to attend the Child Welfare Conference called by Republican President Calvin Coolidge. In 1930 President Herbert Hoover appointed her to the White House Conference on Child Health.

Southeastern Association of Colored Women's Clubs

The Southeastern Federation of Colored Women's Clubs (eventually renamed as the Southeastern Association of Colored Women's Clubs) elected Bethune as president after its first conference in 1920 at the Tuskegee Institute. They intended to reach out to Southern women (specifically White women) for support and unity in gaining rights for Black women. The women met in Memphis, Tennessee, to discuss interracial problems.

In many respects, all of the women agreed about what needed to be changed until they came to the topic of suffrage. The White women at the conference tried to strike down a resolution on Black suffrage. The SACWC responded by issuing a pamphlet entitled Southern Negro Women and Race Co-Operation; it delineated their demands regarding conditions in domestic service, child welfare, conditions of travel, education, lynching, the public press, and voting rights.

The group went on to help register Black women to vote after they were granted suffrage resulting from the passage of the constitutional amendment. However, in both Florida and other Southern states, Black men and women experienced disenfranchisement by discriminatory application of literacy and comprehension tests and requirements to pay poll taxes, lengthy residency requirements, and governmental insistence upon keeping and displaying relevant records.

National Council of Negro Women

In 1935 Bethune founded the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) in New York City, bringing together representatives of 28 different organizations to work to improve the lives of Black women and their communities. Bethune said of the council:

It is our pledge to make a lasting contribution to all that is finest and best in America, to cherish and enrich her heritage of freedom and progress by working for the integration of all her people regardless of race, creed, or national origin, into her spiritual, social, cultural, civic, and economic life, and thus aid her to achieve the glorious destiny of a true and unfettered democracy.

In 1938, the NCNW hosted the White House Conference on Negro Women and Children, demonstrating the importance of Black women in democratic roles. During World War II, the NCNW gained approval for Black women to be commissioned as officers in the Women's Army Corps. Bethune also served as a political appointee and the Special Assistant to the Secretary of War during the war.

In the 1990s, the headquarters for the National Council for Negro Women moved to Pennsylvania Avenue, centrally located between the White House and the U.S. Capitol. The former headquarters, where Bethune also lived at one time, has been designated as a National Historic Site.

National Youth Administration

The National Youth Administration (NYA) was a federal agency created under Roosevelt's Works Progress Administration (WPA). It provided programs specifically to promote relief and employment for young people. It focused on unemployed citizens aged sixteen to twenty-five years who were not in school. Bethune lobbied the organization so aggressively and effectively for minority involvement that she earned a full-time staff position in 1936 as an assistant.

Within two years, Bethune was appointed to Director of the Division of Negro Affairs, and became the first African-American female division head. She managed NYA funds to help Black students through school-based programs. She was the only Black agent of the NYA who was a financial manager. She ensured Black colleges participated in the Civilian Pilot Training Program, which graduated some of the first Black pilots. The director of the NYA said in 1939: "No one can do what Mrs. Bethune can do."

Bethune's determination helped national officials recognize the need to improve employment for Black youth. The NYA's final report, issued in 1943, stated,

more than 300,000 black young men and women were given employment and work training on NYA projects. These projects opened to these youth, training opportunities and enabled the majority of them to qualify for jobs heretofore closed to them.

Within the administration, Bethune advocated for the appointment of Black NYA officials to positions of political power. Bethune's administrative assistants served as liaisons between the National Division of Negro Affairs and the NYA agencies on the state and local levels. The high number of administrative assistants composed a workforce commanded by Bethune. They helped gain a better job and salary opportunities for Black people across the country.

During her tenure, Bethune also pushed federal officials to approve a program of consumer education for Blacks and a foundation for Black disabled children. She planned for studies for Black workers' education councils. National officials did not support these due to inadequate funding and fear of duplicating the work of private, non-governmental agencies. The NYA was terminated in 1943.

Black Cabinet

Bethune became a close and loyal friend of Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt. At the Southern Conference on Human Welfare in 1938, held in Birmingham, Alabama, Eleanor Roosevelt requested a seat next to Bethune despite state segregation laws. Roosevelt also referred to Bethune as "her closest friend in her age group" frequently. Bethune told Black voters about the work the Roosevelt Administration did on their behalf and made their concerns known to the Roosevelts. She had unprecedented access to the White House through her relationship with the First Lady.

She used this access to form a coalition of leaders from Black organizations called the Federal Council of Negro Affairs, later known as the Black Cabinet. It served as an advisory board to the Roosevelt administration on issues facing Black people in America. It was composed of numerous talented Blacks, mostly men, who had been appointed to positions in federal agencies. This was the first collective of Black people working in higher positions in government.

It suggested to voters that the Roosevelt administration cared about Black concerns. The group met in Bethune's office or apartment informally and rarely kept meeting minutes. Although they did not create public policy directly as advisors, they gained the respect of Black voters as leaders. They also influenced political appointments and the disbursement of funds to organizations that would benefit Black people.

Civil rights

Bethune coordinated with Methodist church members during the Bethune-Cookman school merger, and she became a member of the church, but it was segregated in the South. Essentially two organizations operated in the Methodist denomination. Bethune was prominent in the primarily Black Florida Conference. While she worked to integrate the mostly White Methodist Episcopal Church, she protested its initial plans for integration because they proposed separate jurisdictions based on race.

Bethune worked to educate both Whites and Blacks about the accomplishments and needs of Black people, writing in 1938,

If our people are to fight their way up out of bondage we must arm them with the sword and the shield and buckler of pride—belief in themselves and their possibilities, based upon a sure knowledge of the achievements of the past.

A year later, she wrote,

Not only the Negro child but children of all races should read and know of the achievements, accomplishments, and deeds of the Negro. World peace and brotherhood are based on a common understanding of the contributions and cultures of all races and creeds.

Starting in 1920, she opened her school to visitors and tourists in Daytona Beach on Sundays, showing off her students' accomplishments, hosting national speakers on Black issues, and taking donations. She ensured that these "Sunday Community Meetings" were integrated. A Black teenager in Daytona at the time later recalled: "Many tourists attended, sitting wherever there were empty seats. There was no special section for white people." Florida law proscribed interracial meetings, a rule which Bethune ignored.

When the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional, Bethune defended the decision by writing in the Chicago Defender that year:

There can be no divided democracy, no class government, no half-free county, under the constitution. Therefore, there can be no discrimination, no segregation, no separation of some citizens from the rights which belong to all. ... We are on our way. But these are frontiers that we must conquer. ... We must gain full equality in education ... in the franchise ... in economic opportunity, and full equality in the abundance of life.

Bethune organized the first officer candidate schools for Black women. She lobbied federal officials, including Roosevelt, on behalf of African-American women who wanted to join the military.

United Negro College Fund

She co-founded the United Negro College Fund (UNCF) on April 25, 1944, with William J. Trent and Frederick D. Patterson. The UNCF is a program which gives many different scholarships, mentorships, and job opportunities to African-American and other minority students attending any of the 37 historically Black colleges and universities. Bethune helped with its initial fundraising efforts, which gathered around $900,000 (equivalent to $15,600,000 in 2023) in six months. Bethune continued to refer philanthropists to the fund, and she joined the board of directors in 1952.

Death and accolades

On May 18, 1955, Bethune died of a heart attack. Her death was followed by editorial tributes in African-American newspapers across the United States. The Oklahoma City Black Dispatch stated she was "Exhibit No. 1 for all who have faith in America and the democratic process." The Atlanta Daily World said her life was "One of the most dramatic careers ever enacted at any time upon the stage of human activity." Moreover, the Pittsburgh Courier wrote, "In any race or nation she would have been an outstanding personality and made a noteworthy contribution because her chief attribute was her indomitable soul."

The mainstream press praised her as well. Christian Century suggested, "the story of her life should be taught to every school child for generations to come." The New York Times noted she was "one of the most potent factors in the growth of interracial goodwill in America." The Washington Post said: "So great were her dynamism and force that it was almost impossible to resist her ... Not only her own people, but all America has been enriched and ennobled by her courageous, ebullient spirit." Her hometown newspaper, the Daytona Beach Evening News printed, "To some, she seemed unreal, something that could not be. ... What right had she to greatness? ... The lesson of Mrs. Bethune's life is that genius knows no racial barriers." McLeod Bethune is buried on the campus of Bethune-Cookman University in Daytona Beach, Florida.

Personal life

Bethune carried a cane for effect, rather than mobility support, stating that it gave her "swank". She was a teetotaler and preached temperance for African Americans, chastising Blacks who were intoxicated publicly. Bethune claimed that the students and teachers in Daytona were her first family. Her students often referred to her as "Mama Bethune".

She was noted for achieving her goals. Robert Weaver, who also served in Roosevelt's Black Cabinet, said of her, "She had the most marvelous gift of effecting feminine helplessness in order to attain her aims with masculine ruthlessness." When a White Daytona resident threatened Bethune's students with a rifle, Bethune worked to make an ally of him. The director of the McLeod Hospital recalled, "Mrs. Bethune treated him with courtesy and developed such goodwill in him that we found him protecting the children and going so far as to say, 'If anybody bothers old Mary, I will protect her with my life.'"

She prioritized self-sufficiency throughout her life. Bethune invested in several businesses, including the Pittsburgh Courier, a Black newspaper, and many life insurance companies. She also founded Central Life Insurance Company of Florida, and later retired in Florida. Due to state segregation, Blacks were not allowed to visit the beach. Bethune and several other business owners responded by investing in and purchasing Paradise Beach, a 2-mile (3.2 km) stretch of beach and the surrounding properties and then selling them to Black families. They also allowed White families to visit the waterfront. Eventually, Paradise Beach was named Bethune-Volusia Beach in her honor. She held 25% ownership of the Welricha Motel in Daytona.

Legacy and honors

In 1930, journalist Ida Tarbell included Bethune as number 10 on her list of America's greatest women. Bethune was awarded the Spingarn Medal in 1935 by the NAACP.

Bethune was the only Black woman present at the founding of the United Nations in San Francisco in 1945, representing the NAACP with W. E. B. Du Bois and Walter White. In 1949, she became the first woman to receive the National Order of Honour and Merit, Haiti's highest award. She served as a U.S. emissary to the re-inauguration of President William V.S. Tubman of Liberia in 1949.

She also served as an adviser to five of the presidents of the United States. Calvin Coolidge and Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed her to several government positions, which included: Special Advisor in Minority Affairs, director of the Division of Negro Affairs of the National Youth Administration, and chair of Federal Council of Negro Affairs. Among her honors, she was an assistant director of the Women's Army Corps. She was also an honorary member of Delta Sigma Theta sorority.

In 1973, Bethune was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. On July 10, 1974, the anniversary of her 99th birthday, the Mary McLeod Bethune Memorial, by artist Robert Berks, was erected in her honor in Lincoln Park (Washington, D.C.). It was the first monument honoring an African American or a woman to be installed in a public park in the District of Columbia. The inscription on the pedestal reads "let her works praise her" (a reference to Proverbs 31:31), while the side is engraved with passage headings from her "Last Will and Testament":

I leave you to love. I leave you to hope. I leave you the challenge of developing confidence in one another. I leave you a thirst for education. I leave you a respect for the uses of power. I leave you faith. I leave you racial dignity. I leave you a desire to live harmoniously with your fellow men. I leave you, finally, a responsibility to our young people.

In 1976, a portrait of Bethune, painted by artist Simmie Knox, was unveiled in the South Carolina House of Representatives. as part of a day of events observing the United States Bicentennial. Speakers during the day of events included Dorothy Height, President of the National Council of Negro Women; Governor James B. Edwards, Senate president pro tempore Marion Gressette; House Speaker Rex Carter, Commissioner of the South Carolina Human Affairs Commission Jim Clyburn and National Council of Negro Women event Co-Chair Alma W. Byrd.

In 1985, the U.S. Postal Service issued a stamp in Bethune's honor. In 1989 Ebony magazine listed her as one of "50 Most Important Figures in Black American History". In 1999, Ebony included her as one of the "100 Most Fascinating Black Women of the 20th century". In 1991, the International Astronomical Union named a crater on planet Venus in her honor.

In 1994, the National Park Service acquired Bethune's last residence, the NACW Council House at 1318 Vermont Avenue. The former headquarters was designated as the Mary McLeod Bethune Council House National Historic Site.

Schools have been named in her honor in Los Angeles, Chicago, San Diego, Dallas, Phoenix, Palm Beach, Florida, Moreno Valley, California, Minneapolis, Ft. Lauderdale, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Folkston and College Park, Georgia, New Orleans, Rochester, New York, Cleveland, South Boston, Virginia, Jacksonville, Florida, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Bethune on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.

The Legislature of Florida in 2018 designated her as the subject of one of Florida's two statues in the National Statuary Hall Collection, replacing Confederate General Edmund Kirby Smith.

The Mary McLeod Bethune Scholarship Program, for Floridian students wishing to attend historically Black colleges and universities within the state, is named in her honor.

A statue of Bethune in Jersey City, New Jersey, was dedicated in 2021 in a namesake park across the street from the Mary McLeod Bethune Life Center.

A statue of Mary McLeod Bethune was unveiled on July 13, 2022, in the United States Capitol, making her the first Black American represented in the National Statuary Hall Collection. A bronze copy of the marble statue was completed by the same artist, Nilda Comas, and erected in Daytona Beach's riverfront park beside the News-Journal Center August 18, 2022.

See also

• African-American history
• African-American literature
• List of African-American writers
• List of people on stamps of the United States

Notes

1. Historian Joyce A. Hanson describes this sale as "unusual", since many White landowners in the area had formed compacts to avoid selling land to Black people.
2. According to research by historian Sheila Flemming, in one year of operation the hospital "cared for 105 patients, had 316 outpatients, made 242 community calls and performed 24 operations".

References

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2. ^ McCluskey & Smith 2001, pp. 5–6
3. ^ McCluskey & Smith 2001, p. xii
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51. Ross, B. Joyce (January 1975). "Mary McLeod Bethune and the National Youth Administration: A Case Study of Power Relationships in the Black Cabinet of Franklin D. Roosevelt". The Journal of Negro History. 60 (1): 1–28. doi:10.2307/2716791. ISSN 0022-2992. JSTOR 2716791. S2CID 149757274.
52. Smith, Elaine M. (January 1996). "Mary McLeod Bethune's "Last Will and Testament": A Legacy for Race Vindication". The Journal of Negro History. 81 (1–4): 105–122. doi:10.1086/jnhv81n1-4p105. ISSN 0022-2992. S2CID 141283003.
53. ^ Ross, B. Joyce (1975). "Mary McLeod Bethune and the National Youth Administration: A Case Study of Power Relationships in the Black Cabinet of Franklin D. Roosevelt". The Journal of Negro History. 60 (1): 1–28. doi:10.2307/2716791. ISSN 0022-2992.
54. Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site (on National Park Service website) "Eleanor Roosevelt and Civil Rights". Retrieved on January 11, 2008.
55. ^ Weiss, Nancy. (1983) Farewell to the Party of Lincoln; Black Politics in the Age of FDR. Princeton University Press ISBN 0691047030
56. "Mary McLeod Bethune," Religious Leaders of America, 2nd ed. Gale Group, 1999.
57. Bethune, Mary (January 1938). "Clarifying our Vision With the Facts," Journal of Negro History; 23 (1) pp. 10–15.
58. Bethune, Mary (January 1939). "The Adaptation of the History of the Negro to the Capacity of the Child," Journal of Negro History, 24 (1) pp. 9–13.
59. Robertson 2015, p. 24
60. Smith, Elaine (Winter, 1996). "Mary McLeod Bethune's 'Last Will and Testament': A Legacy for Race Vindication", Journal of Negro History, 8 (1/4), pp. 105–122
61. Robertson 2015, p. 24
62. Bethune, Mary McLeod (July 10, 2013). "Today in labor history: Mary McLeod Bethune born". People's World. Long View Publishing Co. Retrieved February 1, 2017.
63. Moffitt, Kelly. "72 years later: United Negro College Fund continues to close college funding gap for minorities". news.stlpublicradio.org. St. Louis Public Radio. Retrieved February 8, 2019.
64. Johnson, Annette (April 22, 2015). "African-American Facts for Week of: April 19, 2015". Indianapolis Recorder Newspaper. Retrieved February 8, 2019.
65. "BEYONCE ANNOUNCES BALMAIN COLLABORATION WHERE ALL PROCEEDS WILL GO TO CHARITY". The Independent. July 12, 2018. Retrieved February 8, 2019.
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Works cited

• Hanson, Joyce A. (2018). Mary McLeod Bethune and Black Women's Political Activism. University of Missouri. ISBN 9780826221544.
• McCluskey and Smith, Audrey Thomas and Elaine M. (2001). Mary McLeod Bethune: Building a Better World Essays and Selected Documents. Indiana University Press. pp. 5–6.
• Robertson, Ashley N. (2015). Mary Mcleod Bethune in Florida: Bringing Social Justice to the Sunshine State. Charleston, SC: History Press. ISBN 9781626199835.

Further reading

• Brown, DeNeen L. (March 5, 2022). "Mary McLeod Bethune, civil rights pioneer, advised presidents on 'the problems of my people'. A statue of Bethune will soon be installed in National Statuary Hall at the U.S. Capitol". Washington Post.
• Rooks, Noliwe (2024). A Passionate Mind in Relentless Pursuit: The Vision of Mary McLeod Bethune. New York: Penguin.
• Smith, Elaine M. "Mary McLeod Bethune: In the Leadership Orbit of Men." Phylon 59.2 (2022): 55–76.
• Thomas, Rhondda R. & Ashton, Susanna, eds. (2014). The South Carolina Roots of African American Thought. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. "Mary Jane McLeod Bethune (1875–1955)", p. 163–167.
• Wesley, C. H. (1984). The History of the NACW's Clubs: A legacy of service.

External links

• Bethune-Cookman University
• National Council of Negro Women
• Bethune's home as a historical landmark in Daytona
• The Mary McLeod Bethune Council House: African American Women Unite for Change, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
• Biography and Bethune's impact on Volusia County (Daytona Beach), Florida
• Mary McLeod Bethune with a Line of Girls from the School from the World Digital Library
• "A Passion for Social Equality: Mary McLeod Bethune's Race Woman Leadership and the New Deal", a political biography
• Mary McLeod Bethune, the NCNW, and the Prewar Push for Equal Opportunity in Defense Projects
• Uniforms at A History of Central Florida Podcast
• Mary McLeod Bethune Biography, Biography.com, February 25, 2015
• Encyclopedia of Race and Racism
• Part of her life is retold in the 1948 radio drama "One out of Seventeen", a presentation from Destination Freedom, written by Richard Durham
• Biography of her life on women's history podcast https://thehistorychicks.com/episode-223-mary-mcleod-bethune/

v t e Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
Events (timeline)	Prior to 1954 Journey of Reconciliation Executive Order 9981 Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore Sweatt v. Painter (1950) McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950) Baton Rouge bus boycott 1954–1959 Brown v. Board of Education Bolling v. Sharpe Briggs v. Elliott Davis v. Prince Edward County Gebhart v. Belton Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company Emmett Till Montgomery bus boycott Browder v. Gayle Tallahassee bus boycott Mansfield school desegregation 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom "Give Us the Ballot" Royal Ice Cream sit-in Little Rock Nine Cooper v. Aaron Civil Rights Act of 1957 Ministers' Manifesto Katz Drug Store sit-in Kissing Case Biloxi wade-ins 1960–1963 New Year's Day March Sit-in movement Greensboro sit-ins Nashville sit-ins Sibley Commission Atlanta sit-ins Savannah Protest Movement Greenville Eight Civil Rights Act of 1960 Ax Handle Saturday Gomillion v. Lightfoot Boynton v. Virginia University of Georgia desegregation riot Rock Hill sit-ins Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address Freedom Rides Anniston bombing Birmingham attack Garner v. Louisiana Albany Movement Cambridge movement University of Chicago sit-ins "Second Emancipation Proclamation" Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot Atlanta's Berlin Wall "Segregation now, segregation forever" Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 1963 Birmingham campaign Letter from Birmingham Jail Children's Crusade Birmingham riot 16th Street Baptist Church bombing John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights Detroit Walk to Freedom March on Washington "I Have a Dream" Big Six St. Augustine movement 1964–1968 Twenty-fourth Amendment Chester school protests Bloody Tuesday 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests Freedom Summer workers' murders Civil Rights Act of 1964 Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States Katzenbach v. McClung 1964–1965 Scripto strike 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches "How Long, Not Long" Voting Rights Act of 1965 Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections March Against Fear White House Conference on Civil Rights Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement Loving v. Virginia Memphis sanitation strike King assassination funeral riots Civil Rights Act of 1968 Poor People's Campaign Green v. County School Board of New Kent County Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. 1968 Olympics Black Power salute
Activist groups	Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights Atlanta Negro Voters League Atlanta Student Movement Black Panther Party Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Committee for Freedom Now Committee on Appeal for Human Rights An Appeal for Human Rights Council for United Civil Rights Leadership Council of Federated Organizations Dallas County Voters League Deacons for Defense and Justice Georgia Council on Human Relations Highlander Folk School Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights Lowndes County Freedom Organization Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party Montgomery Improvement Association NAACP Youth Council Nashville Student Movement Nation of Islam Northern Student Movement National Council of Negro Women National Urban League Operation Breadbasket Regional Council of Negro Leadership Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Southern Regional Council Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) The Freedom Singers United Auto Workers (UAW) Wednesdays in Mississippi Women's Political Council
Activists	Ralph Abernathy Victoria Gray Adams Zev Aelony Mathew Ahmann Muhammad Ali William G. Anderson Gwendolyn Armstrong Arnold Aronson Ella Baker James Baldwin Marion Barry Daisy Bates Harry Belafonte James Bevel Claude Black Gloria Blackwell Randolph Blackwell Unita Blackwell Ezell Blair Jr. Joanne Bland Julian Bond Joseph E. Boone William Holmes Borders Amelia Boynton Bruce Boynton Raylawni Branch Stanley Branche Ruby Bridges Aurelia Browder H. Rap Brown Ralph Bunche John H. Calhoun Guy Carawan Stokely Carmichael Johnnie Carr James Chaney J. L. Chestnut Shirley Chisholm Colia Lafayette Clark Ramsey Clark Septima Clark Xernona Clayton Eldridge Cleaver Kathleen Cleaver Josephine Dobbs Clement Charles E. Cobb Jr. Annie Lee Cooper Dorothy Cotton Claudette Colvin Vernon Dahmer Jonathan Daniels Abraham Lincoln Davis Angela Davis Joseph DeLaine Dave Dennis Annie Bell Robinson Devine John Wesley Dobbs Patricia Stephens Due Joseph Ellwanger Charles Evers Medgar Evers Myrlie Evers-Williams Chuck Fager James Farmer Walter Fauntroy James Forman Marie Foster Golden Frinks Andrew Goodman Robert Graetz Fred Gray Jack Greenberg Dick Gregory Lawrence Guyot Prathia Hall Fannie Lou Hamer Fred Hampton William E. Harbour Vincent Harding Dorothy Height Audrey Faye Hendricks Lola Hendricks Aaron Henry Oliver Hill Donald L. Hollowell James Hood Myles Horton Zilphia Horton T. R. M. Howard Ruby Hurley Cecil Ivory Jesse Jackson Jimmie Lee Jackson Richie Jean Jackson T. J. Jemison Esau Jenkins Barbara Rose Johns Vernon Johns Frank Minis Johnson Clarence Jones J. Charles Jones Matthew Jones Vernon Jordan Tom Kahn Clyde Kennard A. D. King C.B. King Coretta Scott King Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Sr. Bernard Lafayette James Lawson Bernard Lee Sanford R. Leigh Jim Letherer Stanley Levison John Lewis Viola Liuzzo Z. Alexander Looby Joseph Lowery Clara Luper Danny Lyon Malcolm X Mae Mallory Vivian Malone Bob Mants Thurgood Marshall Benjamin Mays Franklin McCain Charles McDew Ralph McGill Floyd McKissick Joseph McNeil James Meredith William Ming Jack Minnis Amzie Moore Cecil B. Moore Douglas E. Moore Harriette Moore Harry T. Moore Queen Mother Moore William Lewis Moore Irene Morgan Bob Moses William Moyer Elijah Muhammad Diane Nash Charles Neblett Huey P. Newton Edgar Nixon Jack O'Dell James Orange Rosa Parks James Peck Charles Person Homer Plessy Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Fay Bellamy Powell Rodney N. Powell Al Raby Lincoln Ragsdale A. Philip Randolph George Raymond George Raymond Jr. Bernice Johnson Reagon Cordell Reagon James Reeb Frederick D. Reese Walter Reuther Gloria Richardson David Richmond Bernice Robinson Jo Ann Robinson Angela Russell Bayard Rustin Bernie Sanders Michael Schwerner Bobby Seale Pete Seeger Cleveland Sellers Charles Sherrod Alexander D. Shimkin Fred Shuttlesworth Modjeska Monteith Simkins Glenn E. Smiley A. Maceo Smith Kelly Miller Smith Mary Louise Smith Maxine Smith Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson Charles Kenzie Steele Hank Thomas Dorothy Tillman A. P. Tureaud Hartman Turnbow Albert Turner C. T. Vivian A. T. Walden Wyatt Tee Walker Hollis Watkins Walter Francis White Roy Wilkins Hosea Williams Kale Williams Robert F. Williams Q. V. Williamson Andrew Young Whitney Young Sammy Younge Jr. Bob Zellner James Zwerg
By region	Omaha, Nebraska South Carolina
Movement songs	"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round" "If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus" "Kumbaya" "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize" "Oh, Freedom" "This Little Light of Mine" "We Shall Not Be Moved" "We Shall Overcome" "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"
Influences	Nonviolence Padayatra Sermon on the Mount Mahatma Gandhi Ahimsa Satyagraha The Kingdom of God Is Within You Frederick Douglass W. E. B. Du Bois Mary McLeod Bethune
Related	Jim Crow laws Lynching in the United States Plessy v. Ferguson Separate but equal Buchanan v. Warley Hocutt v. Wilson Sweatt v. Painter Hernandez v. Texas Loving v. Virginia African-American women in the movement Jews in the civil rights movement Fifth Circuit Four 16th Street Baptist Church Kelly Ingram Park A.G. Gaston Motel Bethel Baptist Church Brown Chapel Dexter Avenue Baptist Church Holt Street Baptist Church Edmund Pettus Bridge March on Washington Movement African-American churches attacked List of lynching victims in the United States Freedom Schools Freedom songs Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence" Voter Education Project 1960s counterculture African American founding fathers of the United States Eyes on the Prize
Legacy	In popular culture Birmingham Civil Rights Institute Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument Civil Rights Memorial Civil Rights Movement Archive Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument Freedom Rides Museum Freedom Riders National Monument King Center for Nonviolent Social Change Martin Luther King Jr. Day Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial other King memorials Mississippi Civil Rights Museum National Civil Rights Museum National Voting Rights Museum St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument Olympic Black Power Statue
Noted historians	Taylor Branch Clayborne Carson John Dittmer Michael Eric Dyson Chuck Fager Adam Fairclough David Garrow David Halberstam Vincent Harding Steven F. Lawson Doug McAdam Diane McWhorter Charles M. Payne Thomas E. Ricks Timothy Tyson Akinyele Umoja Movement photographers
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