Misplaced Pages

Rutherfordium (₁₀₄Rf) is a synthetic element and thus has no stable isotopes. A standard atomic weight cannot be given. The first isotope to be synthesized was either Rf in 1966 or Rf in 1969. There are 17 known radioisotopes from Rf to Rf (three of which, Rf, Rf, and Rf, are unconfirmed) and several isomers. The longest-lived isotope is Rf with a half-life of 48 minutes, and the longest-lived isomer is Rf with a half-life of 8 seconds.

List of isotopes

1. Rf – Excited nuclear isomer.
2. ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
3. # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).
4. ^ # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
5. Modes of decay:

   SF:	Spontaneous fission

6. ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
7. Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of Hs
8. Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of Fl
9. ^ Discovery of this isotope is unconfirmed
10. Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of Nh
11. Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of Fl
12. Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of Mc
13. Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of Ts

Nucleosynthesis

Super-heavy elements such as rutherfordium are produced by bombarding lighter elements in particle accelerators that induces fusion reactions. Whereas most of the isotopes of rutherfordium can be synthesized directly this way, some heavier ones have only been observed as decay products of elements with higher atomic numbers.

Depending on the energies involved, the former are separated into "hot" and "cold". In hot fusion reactions, very light, high-energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets (actinides), giving rise to compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40–50 MeV) that may either fission or evaporate several (3 to 5) neutrons. In cold fusion reactions, the produced fused nuclei have a relatively low excitation energy (~10–20 MeV), which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions. As the fused nuclei cool to the ground state, they require emission of only one or two neutrons, and thus, allows for the generation of more neutron-rich products. The latter is a distinct concept from that of where nuclear fusion claimed to be achieved at room temperature conditions (see cold fusion).

Hot fusion studies

The synthesis of rutherfordium was first attempted in 1964 by the team at Dubna using the hot fusion reaction of neon-22 projectiles with plutonium-242 targets:

₉₄Pu
+
₁₀Ne
→
₁₀₄Rf
+ 3 or 5
n
.

The first study produced evidence for a spontaneous fission with a 0.3 second half-life and another one at 8 seconds. While the former observation was eventually retracted, the latter eventually became associated with the Rf isotope. In 1966, the Soviet team repeated the experiment using a chemical study of volatile chloride products. They identified a volatile chloride with eka-hafnium properties that decayed fast through spontaneous fission. This gave strong evidence for the formation of RfCl₄, and although a half-life was not accurately measured, later evidence suggested that the product was most likely Rf. The team repeated the experiment several times over the next few years, and in 1971, they revised the spontaneous fission half-life for the isotope at 4.5 seconds.

In 1969, researchers at the University of California led by Albert Ghiorso, tried to confirm the original results reported at Dubna. In a reaction of curium-248 with oxygen-16, they were unable to confirm the result of the Soviet team, but managed to observe the spontaneous fission of Rf with a very short half-life of 10–30 ms:

₉₆Cm
+
₈O
→
₁₀₄Rf
+ 4
n
.

In 1970, the American team also studied the same reaction with oxygen-18 and identified Rf with a half-life of 65 seconds (later refined to 75 seconds). Later experiments at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California also revealed the formation of a short-lived isomer of Rf (which undergoes spontaneous fission with a half-life of 47 ms), and spontaneous fission activities with long lifetimes tentatively assigned to Rf.

The reaction of californium-249 with carbon-13 was also investigated by the Ghiorso team, which indicated the formation of the short-lived Rf (which undergoes spontaneous fission in 11 ms):

₉₈Cf
+
₆C
→
₁₀₄Rf
+ 4
n
.

In trying to confirm these results by using carbon-12 instead, they also observed the first alpha decays from Rf.

The reaction of berkelium-249 with nitrogen-14 was first studied in Dubna in 1977, and in 1985, researchers there confirmed the formation of the Rf isotope which quickly undergoes spontaneous fission in 28 ms:

₉₇Bk
+
₇N
→
₁₀₄Rf
+ 3
n
.

In 1996 the isotope Rf was observed in LBNL from the fusion of plutonium-244 with neon-22:

₉₄Pu
+
₁₀Ne
→
₁₀₄Rf
+ 4 or 5
n
.

The team determined a half-life of 2.1 seconds, in contrast to earlier reports of 47 ms and suggested that the two half-lives might be due to different isomeric states of Rf. Studies on the same reaction by a team at Dubna, lead to the observation in 2000 of alpha decays from Rf and spontaneous fissions of Rf.

The hot fusion reaction using a uranium target was first reported at Dubna in 2000:

₉₂U
+
₁₂Mg
→
₁₀₄Rf
+ x
n
(x = 3, 4, 5, 6).

They observed decays from Rf and Rf, and later for Rf. In 2006, as part of their program on the study of uranium targets in hot fusion reactions, the team at LBNL also observed Rf.

Cold fusion studies

The first cold fusion experiments involving element 104 were done in 1974 at Dubna, by using light titanium-50 nuclei aimed at lead-208 isotope targets:

₈₂Pb
+
₂₂Ti
→
₁₀₄Rf
+ x
n
(x = 1, 2, or 3).

The measurement of a spontaneous fission activity was assigned to Rf, while later studies done at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung Institute (GSI), also measured decay properties for the isotopes Rf, and Rf.

In 1974 researchers at Dubna investigated the reaction of lead-207 with titanium-50 to produce the isotope Rf. In a 1994 study at GSI using the lead-206 isotope, Rf as well as Rf were detected. Rf was similarly detected that year when lead-204 was used instead.

Decay studies

Most isotopes with an atomic mass below 262 have also observed as decay products of elements with a higher atomic number, allowing for refinement of their previously measured properties. Heavier isotopes of rutherfordium have only been observed as decay products. For example, a few alpha decay events terminating in Rf were observed in the decay chain of darmstadtium-279 since 2004:

₁₁₀Ds
→
₁₀₈Hs
+
α
→
₁₀₆Sg
+
α
→
₁₀₄Rf
+
α
.

This further underwent spontaneous fission with a half-life of about 1.3 h.

Investigations on the synthesis of the dubnium-263 isotope in 1999 at the University of Bern revealed events consistent with electron capture to form Rf. A rutherfordium fraction was separated, and several spontaneous fission events with long half-lives of about 15 minutes were observed, as well as alpha decays with half-lives of about 10 minutes. Reports on the decay chain of flerovium-285 in 2010 showed five sequential alpha decays that terminate in Rf, which further undergoes spontaneous fission with a half-life of 152 seconds.

Some experimental evidence was obtained in 2004 for a heavier isotope, Rf, in the decay chain of an isotope of moscovium:

₁₁₅Mc
→
₁₁₃Nh
+
α
→
₁₁₁Rg
+
α
→
₁₀₉Mt
+
α
→
₁₀₇Bh
+
α
→
₁₀₅Db
+
α
 ? →
₁₀₄Rf
+
ν
_e.

However, the last step in this chain was uncertain. After observing the five alpha decay events that generate dubnium-268, spontaneous fission events were observed with a long half-life. It is unclear whether these events were due to direct spontaneous fission of Db, or Db produced electron capture events with long half-lives to generate Rf. If the latter is produced and decays with a short half-life, the two possibilities cannot be distinguished. Given that the electron capture of Db cannot be detected, these spontaneous fission events may be due to Rf, in which case the half-life of this isotope cannot be extracted. A similar mechanism is proposed for the formation of the even heavier isotope Rf as a short-lived daughter of Db (in the decay chain of Ts, first synthesized in 2010) which then undergoes spontaneous fission:

₁₁₇Ts
→
₁₁₅Mc
+
α
→
₁₁₃Nh
+
α
→
₁₁₁Rg
+
α
→
₁₀₉Mt
+
α
→
₁₀₇Bh
+
α
→
₁₀₅Db
+
α
 ? →
₁₀₄Rf
+
ν
_e.

According to a 2007 report on the synthesis of nihonium, the isotope Nh was twice observed to undergo a similar decay to form Db. In one case this underwent spontaneous fission with a half-life of 22 minutes. Given that the electron capture of Db cannot be detected, these spontaneous fission events may be due to Rf, in which case the half-life of this isotope cannot be extracted. In the other case, no spontaneous fission event was observed; it could have been missed, or Db might have undergone two more alpha decays to long-lived Md, with a half-life (51.5 d) longer than the total time of the experiment.

Nuclear isomerism

Several early studies on the synthesis of Rf have indicated that this nuclide decays primarily by spontaneous fission with a half-life of 10–20 minutes. More recently, a study of hassium isotopes allowed the synthesis of atoms of Rf decaying with a shorter half-life of 8 seconds. These two different decay modes must be associated with two isomeric states, but specific assignments are difficult due to the low number of observed events.

During research on the synthesis of rutherfordium isotopes utilizing the Pu(Ne,5n)Rf reaction, the product was found to undergo exclusive 8.28 MeV alpha decay with a half-life of 78 seconds. Later studies at GSI on the synthesis of copernicium and hassium isotopes produced conflicting data, as Rf produced in the decay chain was found to undergo 8.52 MeV alpha decay with a half-life of 4 seconds. Later results indicated a predominant fission branch. These contradictions led to some doubt on the discovery of copernicium. The first isomer is currently denoted Rf (or simply Rf) whilst the second is denoted Rf (or Rf). However, it is thought that the first nucleus belongs to a high-spin ground state and the latter to a low-spin metastable state. The discovery and confirmation of Rf provided proof for the discovery of copernicium in 1996.

A detailed spectroscopic study of the production of Rf nuclei using the reaction Pb(Ti,n)Rf allowed the identification of an isomeric level in Rf. The work confirmed that Rf has a complex spectrum with 15 alpha lines. A level structure diagram was calculated for both isomers. Similar isomers were reported for Rf also.

Chemical yields of isotopes

Cold fusion

The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for cold fusion reactions producing rutherfordium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.

Hot fusion

The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for hot fusion reactions producing rutherfordium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel.

References

1. ^ Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
2. Sonzogni, Alejandro. "Interactive Chart of Nuclides". National Nuclear Data Center: Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
3. ^ Utyonkov, V. K.; Brewer, N. T.; Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Rykaczewski, K. P.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Dimitriev, S. N.; Grzywacz, R. K.; Itkis, M. G.; Miernik, K.; Polyakov, A. N.; Roberto, J. B.; Sagaidak, R. N.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Shumeiko, M. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; Voinov, A. A.; Subbotin, V. G.; Sukhov, A. M.; Karpov, A. V.; Popeko, A. G.; Sabel'nikov, A. V.; Svirikhin, A. I.; Vostokin, G. K.; Hamilton, J. H.; Kovrinzhykh, N. D.; Schlattauer, L.; Stoyer, M. A.; Gan, Z.; Huang, W. X.; Ma, L. (30 January 2018). "Neutron-deficient superheavy nuclei obtained in the Pu+Ca reaction". Physical Review C. 97 (14320): 014320. Bibcode:2018PhRvC..97a4320U. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.97.014320.
4. ^ Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Ibadullayev, D.; et al. (2022). "Investigation of Ca-induced reactions with Pu and U targets at the JINR Superheavy Element Factory". Physical Review C. 106 (24612): 024612. Bibcode:2022PhRvC.106b4612O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.106.024612. S2CID 251759318.
5. ^ Khuyagbaatar, J.; Mosat, P.; Ballof, J.; et al. (21 November 2024). "Stepping into the sea of instability: The new sub-𝜇s superheavy nucleus Rf". Physical Review Letters.
6. Lopez-Martens, A.; Hauschild, K.; Svirikhin, A. I.; Asfari, Z.; Chelnokov, M. L.; Chepigin, V. I.; Dorvaux, O.; Forge, M.; Gall, B.; Isaev, A. V.; Izosimov, I. N.; Kessaci, K.; Kuznetsova, A. A.; Malyshev, O. N.; Mukhin, R. S.; Popeko, A. G.; Popov, Yu. A.; Sailaubekov, B.; Sokol, E. A.; Tezekbayeva, M. S.; Yeremin, A. V. (22 February 2022). "Fission properties of Rf 253 and the stability of neutron-deficient Rf isotopes". Physical Review C. 105 (2). arXiv:2202.11802. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.105.L021306. ISSN 2469-9985. S2CID 247072308. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
7. David, H. M.; Chen, J.; Seweryniak, D.; Kondev, F. G.; Gates, J. M.; Gregorich, K. E.; Ahmad, I.; Albers, M.; Alcorta, M.; Back, B. B.; Baartman, B.; Bertone, P. F.; Bernstein, L. A.; Campbell, C. M.; Carpenter, M. P.; Chiara, C. J.; Clark, R. M.; Cromaz, M.; Doherty, D. T.; Dracoulis, G. D.; Esker, N. E.; Fallon, P.; Gothe, O. R.; Greene, J. P.; Greenlees, P. T.; Hartley, D. J.; Hauschild, K.; Hoffman, C. R.; Hota, S. S.; Janssens, R. V. F.; Khoo, T. L.; Konki, J.; Kwarsick, J. T.; Lauritsen, T.; Macchiavelli, A. O.; Mudder, P. R.; Nair, C.; Qiu, Y.; Rissanen, J.; Rogers, A. M.; Ruotsalainen, P.; Savard, G.; Stolze, S.; Wiens, A.; Zhu, S. (24 September 2015). "Decay and Fission Hindrance of Two- and Four-Quasiparticle K Isomers in Rf 254". Physical Review Letters. 115 (13): 132502. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.132502. hdl:1885/152426. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 26451549. S2CID 22923276. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
8. Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; Yeremin, A. V.; Andreyev, A. N.; Saro, S. (1 December 1997). "Spontaneous fission and alpha-decay properties of neutron deficient isotopes 257−253104 and 258106" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Physik A. 359 (4): 415–425. Bibcode:1997ZPhyA.359..415A. doi:10.1007/s002180050422. ISSN 1431-5831. S2CID 121551261. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
9. Chakma, R.; Lopez-Martens, A.; Hauschild, K.; Yeremin, A. V.; Malyshev, O. N.; Popeko, A. G.; Popov, Yu. A.; Svirikhin, A. I.; Chepigin, V. I.; Sokol, E. A.; Isaev, A. V.; Kuznetsova, A. A.; Chelnokov, M. L.; Tezekbayeva, M. S.; Izosimov, I. N.; Dorvaux, O.; Gall, B.; Asfari, Z. (31 January 2023). "Investigation of isomeric states in Rf 255". Physical Review C. 107 (1): 014326. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.107.014326. ISSN 2469-9985. S2CID 256489616. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
10. Jeppesen, H. B.; Dragojević, I.; Clark, R. M.; Gregorich, K. E.; Ali, M. N.; Allmond, J. M.; Beausang, C. W.; Bleuel, D. L.; Cromaz, M.; Deleplanque, M. A.; Ellison, P. A.; Fallon, P.; Garcia, M. A.; Gates, J. M.; Greene, J. P.; Gros, S.; Lee, I. Y.; Liu, H. L.; Macchiavelli, A. O.; Nelson, S. L.; Nitsche, H.; Pavan, J. R.; Stavsetra, L.; Stephens, F. S.; Wiedeking, M.; Wyss, R.; Xu, F. R. (6 March 2009). "Multi-quasiparticle states in Rf 256". Physical Review C. 79 (3): 031303. Bibcode:2009PhRvC..79c1303J. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.79.031303. ISSN 0556-2813. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
11. Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; Yeremin, A. V.; Andreyev, A. N.; Saro, S. (1 December 1997). "Spontaneous fission and alpha-decay properties of neutron deficient isotopes 257−253104 and 258106" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Physik A. 359 (4): 415–425. Bibcode:1997ZPhyA.359..415A. doi:10.1007/s002180050422. ISSN 1431-5831. S2CID 121551261. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
12. AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation
13. ^ Hauschild, K.; Lopez-Martens, A.; Chakma, R.; Chelnokov, M. L.; Chepigin, V. I.; Isaev, A. V.; Izosimov, I. N.; Katrasev, D. E.; Kuznetsova, A. A.; Malyshev, O. N.; Popeko, A. G.; Popov, Yu. A.; Sokol, E. A.; Svirikhin, A. I.; Tezekbayeva, M. S.; Yeremin, A. V.; Asfari, Z.; Dorvaux, O.; Gall, B. J. P.; Kessaci, K.; Ackermann, D.; Piot, J.; Mosat, P.; Andel, B. (18 January 2022). "Alpha-decay spectroscopy of $$^{257}$$Rf". The European Physical Journal A. 58 (1): 6. arXiv:2104.12526. doi:10.1140/epja/s10050-021-00657-8. ISSN 1434-601X. S2CID 233394478. Retrieved 17 June 2023.
14. Heßberger, F. P.; Antalic, S.; Mistry, A. K.; Ackermann, D.; Andel, B.; Block, M.; Kalaninova, Z.; Kindler, B.; Kojouharov, I.; Laatiaoui, M.; Lommel, B.; Piot, J.; Vostinar, M. (20 July 2016). "Alpha- and EC-decay measurements of 257Rf". The European Physical Journal A. 52 (7): 192. doi:10.1140/epja/i2016-16192-0. ISSN 1434-601X. S2CID 254108438. Retrieved 17 June 2023.
15. Streicher, B.; Heßberger, F. P.; Antalic, S.; Hofmann, S.; Ackermann, D.; Heinz, S.; Kindler, B.; Khuyagbaatar, J.; Kojouharov, I.; Kuusiniemi, P.; Leino, M.; Lommel, B.; Mann, R.; Šáro, Š.; Sulignano, B.; Uusitalo, J.; Venhart, M. (1 September 2010). "Alpha-gamma decay studies of 261Sg and 257Rf" (PDF). The European Physical Journal A. 45 (3): 275–286. Bibcode:2010EPJA...45..275S. doi:10.1140/epja/i2010-11005-2. ISSN 1434-601X. S2CID 120939068. Retrieved 17 June 2023.
16. Berryman, J. S.; Clark, R. M.; Gregorich, K. E.; Allmond, J. M.; Bleuel, D. L.; Cromaz, M.; Dragojević, I.; Dvorak, J.; Ellison, P. A.; Fallon, P.; Garcia, M. A.; Gros, S.; Lee, I. Y.; Macchiavelli, A. O.; Nitsche, H.; Paschalis, S.; Petri, M.; Qian, J.; Stoyer, M. A.; Wiedeking, M. (29 June 2010). "Electromagnetic decays of excited states in Sg 261 ( Z = 106 ) and Rf 257 ( Z = 104 )". Physical Review C. 81 (6): 064325. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.81.064325. ISSN 0556-2813. Retrieved 17 June 2023.
17. Heßberger, F. P.; Antalic, S.; Ackermann, D.; Andel, B.; Block, M.; Kalaninova, Z.; Kindler, B.; Kojouharov, I.; Laatiaoui, M.; Lommel, B.; Mistry, A. K.; Piot, J.; Vostinar, M. (11 November 2016). "Investigation of electron capture decay of 258Db and $\alpha$decay of 258Rf". The European Physical Journal A. 52 (11): 328. doi:10.1140/epja/i2016-16328-2. ISSN 1434-601X. S2CID 125302206. Retrieved 18 June 2023.
18. Lazarev, Yu. A.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Polyakov, A. N.; Rigol, J.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; Iliev, S.; Subbotin, V. G.; Sukhov, A. M.; Buklanov, G. V.; Mezentsev, A. N.; Subotic, K.; Moody, K. J.; Stoyer, N. J.; Wild, J. F.; Lougheed, R. W. (13 November 2000). "Decay properties of 257 No , 261 Rf , and 262 Rf". Physical Review C. 62 (6): 064307. Bibcode:2000PhRvC..62f4307L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.62.064307. ISSN 0556-2813. Retrieved 17 June 2023.
19. Sylwester, E. R.; Adams, J. L.; Lane, M. R.; Shaughnessy, D. A.; Wilk, P. A.; Hoffman, D. C.; Gregorich, K. E.; Lee, D. M.; Laue, C. A.; McGrath, C. A.; Strellis, D. A.; Kadkhodayan, B.; Tuerler, A.; Kacher, C. D. (1 July 2000). "On-line gas chromatographic studies of Rf, Zr, and Hf bromides". Radiochimica Acta. 88 (12): 837–844. doi:10.1524/ract.2000.88.12.837. S2CID 201281991. Retrieved 17 June 2023.
20. Henderson, Roger. "Chemical and Nuclear Properties of Lawrencium (Element 103) and Hahnium (Element 105)" (PDF). University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 17 June 2023.
21. Kadkhodayen, B.; Tuerler, A.; Gregorich, K. E.; Baisden, P. A.; Czerwinski, K. R.; Eichler, B.; Gaeggeler, H. W.; Hamilton, T. M.; Jost, D. T.; Kacher, C. D.; Kovacs, A.; Kreek, S. A.; Lane, M. R.; Mohar, M. F.; Neu, M. P.; Stoyer, N. J.; Sylwester, E. R.; Lee, D. M.; Nurmia, M. J.; Seaborg, G. T.; Hoffman, D. C. (1 August 1996). "On-line gas chromatographic studies of chlorides of rutherfordium and homologs Zr and Hf". Radiochimica Acta. 72. Retrieved 17 June 2023.
22. Haba, H.; Kaji, D.; Kikunaga, H.; Kudou, Y.; Morimoto, K.; Morita, K.; Ozeki, K.; Sumita, T.; Yoneda, A.; Kasamatsu, Y.; Komori, Y.; Ooe, K.; Shinohara, A. (2011). "Production and decay properties of the 1.9-s isomeric state in Rf". Physical Review C. 83 (3): 034602. Bibcode:2011PhRvC..83c4602H. doi:10.1103/physrevc.83.034602.
23. Gorshkov; et al. "Measurements of 260-262Rf produced in 22Ne + 244Pu fusion reaction at TASCA" (PDF). GSI. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
24. Kacher, Christian D. (30 October 1995). "Chemical and nuclear properties of Rutherfordium (Element 104)". Lawrence Berkeley National Lab. (LBNL), Berkeley, CA (United States). doi:10.2172/193914. OSTI 193914. Retrieved 18 June 2023. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
25. Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Shumeiko, M. V.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Adamian, G. G.; Dmitriev, S. N.; Ibadullayev, D.; Itkis, M. G.; Kovrizhnykh, N. D.; Kuznetsov, D. A.; Petrushkin, O. V.; Podshibiakin, A. V.; Polyakov, A. N.; Popeko, A. G.; Rogov, I. S.; Sagaidak, R. N.; Schlattauer, L.; Shubin, V. D.; Solovyev, D. I.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; Voinov, A. A.; Subbotin, V. G.; Bublikova, N. S.; Voronyuk, M. G.; Sabelnikov, A. V.; Bodrov, A. Yu.; Aksenov, N. V.; Khalkin, A. V.; Gan, Z. G.; Zhang, Z. Y.; Huang, M. H.; Yang, H. B. (6 May 2024). "Synthesis and decay properties of isotopes of element 110: Ds 273 and Ds 275". Physical Review C. 109 (5): 054307. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.109.054307. ISSN 2469-9985. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
26. ^ Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; et al. (2007). "Synthesis of the isotope 282113 in the Np237+Ca48 fusion reaction". Physical Review C. 76 (1): 011601. Bibcode:2007PhRvC..76a1601O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.76.011601.
27. ^ Oganessian, Yuri (8 February 2012). "Nuclei in the "Island of Stability" of Superheavy Elements". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 337 (1): 012005. Bibcode:2012JPhCS.337a2005O. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/337/1/012005.
28. ^ "CERN Document Server: Record#831577: Chemical Identification of Dubnium as a Decay Product of Element 115 Produced in the Reaction 48Ca + 243Am". Cdsweb.cern.ch. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
29. ^ Stock, Reinhard (13 September 2013). Encyclopedia of Nuclear Physics and its Applications. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9783527649266. Retrieved 8 April 2018 – via Google Books.
30. Fritz Peter Heßberger. "Exploration of Nuclear Structure and Decay of Heaviest Elements at GSI - SHIP". agenda.infn.it. Retrieved 2016-09-10.
31. ^ Barber, Robert C.; Gäggeler, Heinz W.; Karol, Paul J.; Nakahara, Hiromichi; Vardaci, Emanuele; Vogt, Erich (2009). "Discovery of the element with atomic number 112 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 81 (7): 1331. doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-08-03-05.
32. Armbruster, Peter & Munzenberg, Gottfried (1989). "Creating superheavy elements". Scientific American. 34: 36–42.
33. Fleischmann, Martin; Pons, Stanley (1989). "Electrochemically induced nuclear fusion of deuterium". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry. 261 (2): 301–308. doi:10.1016/0022-0728(89)80006-3.
34. ^ "Discovery of the transneptunium elements", IUPAC/IUPAP Technical Report, Pure Appl. Chem., Vol. 65, No. 8, pp. 1757-1814,1993. Retrieved on 2008-03-04
35. Ghiorso, A.; Nurmia, M.; Eskola, K.; Eskola, P. (1970). "Rf; new isotope of element 104". Physics Letters B. 32 (2): 95–98. Bibcode:1970PhLB...32...95G. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(70)90595-2.
36. Sylwester; Gregorich, K. E.; et al. (2000). "On-line gas chromatographic studies of Rf, Zr, and Hf bromides". Radiochimica Acta. 88 (12_2000): 837. doi:10.1524/ract.2000.88.12.837. S2CID 201281991.
37. Somerville, L. P.; Nurmia, M. J.; Nitschke, J. M.; Ghiorso, A.; Hulet, E. K.; Lougheed, R. W. (1985). "Spontaneous fission of rutherfordium isotopes". Physical Review C. 31 (5): 1801–1815. Bibcode:1985PhRvC..31.1801S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.31.1801. PMID 9952719.
38. ^ Kratz; Nähler, A.; et al. (2003). "An EC-branch in the decay of 27-sDb: Evidence for the new isotopeRf" (PDF). Radiochim. Acta. 91 (1–2003): 59–62. doi:10.1524/ract.91.1.59.19010. S2CID 96560109. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-02-25.
39. ^ Ghiorso; et al. (1969). "Positive Identification of Two Alpha-Particle-Emitting Isotopes of Element 104". Phys. Rev. Lett. 22 (24): 1317–1320. Bibcode:1969PhRvL..22.1317G. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.22.1317.
40. Lane; Gregorich, K.; et al. (1996). "Spontaneous fission properties of 104262Rf". Physical Review C. 53 (6): 2893–2899. Bibcode:1996PhRvC..53.2893L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.53.2893. PMID 9971276.
41. ^ Lazarev, Yu; et al. (2000). "Decay properties of 257No, 261Rf, and 262Rf". Physical Review C. 62 (6): 64307. Bibcode:2000PhRvC..62f4307L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.62.064307.
42. Gregorich, K. E.; et al. (2005). "Systematic Study of Heavy Element Production in Compound Nucleus Reactions with U Targets" (PDF). LBNL annual report. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
43. Gates; Garcia, M. A.; et al. (2008). "Synthesis of rutherfordium isotopes in the U(Mg,xn)Rf reaction and study of their decay properties". Physical Review C. 77 (3): 34603. Bibcode:2008PhRvC..77c4603G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.77.034603. S2CID 42983895.
44. Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Demin, A. G.; Il'inov, A. S.; Tret'yakova, S. P.; Pleve, A. A.; Penionzhkevich, Yu. É.; Ivanov, M. P.; Tret'yakov, Yu. P. (1975). "Experiments on the synthesis of neutron-deficient kurchatovium isotopes in reactions induced by Ti Ions". Nuclear Physics A. 38 (6): 492–501. Bibcode:1975NuPhA.239..157O. doi:10.1016/0375-9474(75)91140-9.
45. Heßberger, F. P.; Münzenberg, G.; et al. (1985). "Study of evaporation residues produced in reactions of ,Pb with Ti". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 321 (2): 317–327. Bibcode:1985ZPhyA.321..317H. doi:10.1007/BF01493453. S2CID 118720320.
46. ^ Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. K.; Yeremin, A. V.; Andreyev, A. N.; Saro, S. (1997). "Spontaneous fission and alpha-decay properties of neutron deficient isotopes 104 and 106". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 359 (4): 415–425. Bibcode:1997ZPhyA.359..415A. doi:10.1007/s002180050422. S2CID 121551261.
47. Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Ackermann, D.; Ninov, V.; Leino, M.; Münzenberg, G.; Saro, S.; Lavrentev, A.; Popeko, A. G.; Yeremin, A. V.; Stodel, Ch. (2001). "Decay properties of neutron-deficient isotopes Db, Rf, Lr"]". European Physical Journal A. 12 (1): 57–67. Bibcode:2001EPJA...12...57H. doi:10.1007/s100500170039. S2CID 117896888.
48. Hofmann, S. (2009). "Superheavy Elements". The Euroschool Lectures on Physics with Exotic Beams, Vol. III Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 764. Springer. pp. 203–252. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85839-3_6. ISBN 978-3-540-85838-6.
49. Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V.; Lobanov, Yu.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Yu.; Gulbekian, G.; Bogomolov, S.; Gikal, B. N.; et al. (2004). "Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of elements 112, 114, and 116 produced in the fusion reactions U, Pu, and Cm+Ca" (PDF). Physical Review C. 70 (6): 064609. Bibcode:2004PhRvC..70f4609O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.70.064609.
50. Oganessian, Yuri (2007). "Heaviest nuclei from 48Ca-induced reactions". Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics. 34 (4): R165–R242. Bibcode:2007JPhG...34R.165O. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/34/4/R01.
51. Ellison, P.; Gregorich, K.; Berryman, J.; Bleuel, D.; Clark, R.; Dragojević, I.; Dvorak, J.; Fallon, P.; Fineman-Sotomayor, C.; et al. (2010). "New Superheavy Element Isotopes: ${\displaystyle ^{242}Pu(^{48}Ca,5n)^{285}114}$". Physical Review Letters. 105 (18): 182701. Bibcode:2010PhRvL.105r2701E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.182701. PMID 21231101.
52. Oganessian, Yury Ts; Dmitriev, Sergey N (2009). "Superheavy elements in D I Mendeleev's Periodic Table". Russian Chemical Reviews. 78 (12): 1077–1087. Bibcode:2009RuCRv..78.1077O. doi:10.1070/RC2009v078n12ABEH004096. S2CID 250848732.
53. Krebs, Robert E. (2006). The history and use of our earth's chemical elements: a reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 344. ISBN 978-0-313-33438-2. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
54. Hofmann, S. (2009). "Superheavy Elements". The Euroschool Lectures on Physics with Exotic Beams, Vol. III Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 764. Springer. p. 229. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85839-3_6. ISBN 978-3-540-85838-6.
55. Streicher, B.; et al. (2010). "Alpha-gamma decay studies of 261Sg and 257Rf". The European Physical Journal A. 45 (3): 275–286. Bibcode:2010EPJA...45..275S. doi:10.1140/epja/i2010-11005-2. S2CID 120939068.
56. Dressler, R.; Türler, A. Evidence for isomeric states in Rf (PDF) (Report). PSI Annual Report 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-07. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
57. Barber, R. C.; Gaeggeler, H. W.; Karol, P. J.; Nakahara, H.; Vardaci, E; Vogt, E. (2009). "Discovery of the element with atomic number 112" (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure Appl. Chem. 81 (7): 1331. doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-08-03-05. S2CID 95703833.
58. Qian, J.; et al. (2009). "Spectroscopy of Rf257". Physical Review C. 79 (6): 064319. Bibcode:2009PhRvC..79f4319Q. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.79.064319.
59. Jeppesen; Dragojević, I.; et al. (2009). "Multi-quasiparticle states inRf". Physical Review C. 79 (3): 031303(R). Bibcode:2009PhRvC..79c1303J. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.79.031303.

• Isotope masses from:
  • M. Wang; G. Audi; A. H. Wapstra; F. G. Kondev; M. MacCormick; X. Xu; et al. (2012). "The AME2012 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 36 (12): 1603–2014. Bibcode:2012ChPhC..36....3M. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/36/12/003. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0010-23E8-5. S2CID 250839471.
  • Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
• Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources.
  • Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
  • National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.x database". Brookhaven National Laboratory.
  • Holden, Norman E. (2004). "11. Table of the Isotopes". In Lide, David R. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.

External links

• http://www.radiochemistry.org/periodictable/elements/isotopes_data/104.html
• http://www-phynu.cea.fr/science_en_ligne/carte_potentiels_microscopiques/choix/isotopes/z104_eng.html
• http://www.springermaterials.com/docs/info/978-3-540-70609-0_7730.html

v t e Isotopes of the chemical elements
Group 1 2   3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Period Hydrogen and alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Pnicto­gens Chal­co­gens Halo­gens Noble gases ① Isotopes § ListH1 Isotopes § ListHe2 ② Isotopes § ListLi3 Isotopes § ListBe4 Isotopes § ListB5 Isotopes § ListC6 Isotopes § ListN7 Isotopes § ListO8 Isotopes § ListF9 Isotopes § ListNe10 ③ Isotopes § ListNa11 Isotopes § ListMg12 Isotopes § ListAl13 Isotopes § ListSi14 Isotopes § ListP15 Isotopes § ListS16 Isotopes § ListCl17 Isotopes § ListAr18 ④ Isotopes § ListK19 Isotopes § ListCa20 Isotopes § ListSc21 Isotopes § ListTi22 Isotopes § ListV23 Isotopes § ListCr24 Isotopes § ListMn25 Isotopes § ListFe26 Isotopes § ListCo27 Isotopes § ListNi28 Isotopes § ListCu29 Isotopes § ListZn30 Isotopes § ListGa31 Isotopes § ListGe32 Isotopes § ListAs33 Isotopes § ListSe34 Isotopes § ListBr35 Isotopes § ListKr36 ⑤ Isotopes § ListRb37 Isotopes § ListSr38 Isotopes § ListY39 Isotopes § ListZr40 Isotopes § ListNb41 Isotopes § ListMo42 Isotopes § ListTc43 Isotopes § ListRu44 Isotopes § ListRh45 Isotopes § ListPd46 Isotopes § ListAg47 Isotopes § ListCd48 Isotopes § ListIn49 Isotopes § ListSn50 Isotopes § ListSb51 Isotopes § ListTe52 Isotopes § ListI53 Isotopes § ListXe54 ⑥ Isotopes § ListCs55 Isotopes § ListBa56 Isotopes § ListLu71 Isotopes § ListHf72 Isotopes § ListTa73 Isotopes § ListW74 Isotopes § ListRe75 Isotopes § ListOs76 Isotopes § ListIr77 Isotopes § ListPt78 Isotopes § ListAu79 Isotopes § ListHg80 Isotopes § ListTl81 Isotopes § ListPb82 Isotopes § ListBi83 Isotopes § ListPo84 Isotopes § ListAt85 Isotopes § ListRn86 ⑦ Isotopes § ListFr87 Isotopes § ListRa88 Isotopes § ListLr103 Isotopes § ListRf104 Isotopes § ListDb105 Isotopes § ListSg106 Isotopes § ListBh107 Isotopes § ListHs108 Isotopes § ListMt109 Isotopes § ListDs110 Isotopes § ListRg111 Isotopes § ListCn112 Isotopes § ListNh113 Isotopes § ListFl114 Isotopes § ListMc115 Isotopes § ListLv116 Isotopes § ListTs117 Isotopes § ListOg118 ⑧ Isotopes § ListUue119 Isotopes § ListUbn120 Isotopes § ListLa57 Isotopes § ListCe58 Isotopes § ListPr59 Isotopes § ListNd60 Isotopes § ListPm61 Isotopes § ListSm62 Isotopes § ListEu63 Isotopes § ListGd64 Isotopes § ListTb65 Isotopes § ListDy66 Isotopes § ListHo67 Isotopes § ListEr68 Isotopes § ListTm69 Isotopes § ListYb70   Isotopes § ListAc89 Isotopes § ListTh90 Isotopes § ListPa91 Isotopes § ListU92 Isotopes § ListNp93 Isotopes § ListPu94 Isotopes § ListAm95 Isotopes § ListCm96 Isotopes § ListBk97 Isotopes § ListCf98 Isotopes § ListEs99 Isotopes § ListFm100 Isotopes § ListMd101 Isotopes § ListNo102
Table of nuclides Categories: Isotopes Tables of nuclides Metastable isotopes Isotopes by element

• Isotopes of rutherfordium
• Rutherfordium
• Lists of isotopes by element