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David Halberstam
Halberstam in 2001
Born	(1934-04-10)April 10, 1934 New York City, U.S.
Died	April 23, 2007(2007-04-23) (aged 73) Menlo Park, California, U.S.
Occupation	Journalist, historian, writer
Education	Harvard University (AB)
Genre	Non-fiction
Spouse	Elżbieta Czyżewska ​ ​(m. 1965; div. 1977)​ Jean Sandness Butler ​ ​(m. 1979)​
Children	1
Relatives	Michael J. Halberstam (brother)

David Halberstam (April 10, 1934 – April 23, 2007) was an American writer, journalist, and historian, known for his work on the Vietnam War, politics, history, the Civil Rights Movement, business, media, American culture, Korean War, and later, sports journalism. He won a Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting in 1964. Halberstam was killed in a car crash in 2007 while doing research for a book.

Early life and education

Halberstam was born in New York City, the son of Blanche (nee Levy) and Charles A. Halberstam, schoolteacher and Army surgeon. His family was Jewish. He was raised in Winsted, Connecticut, where he was a classmate of Ralph Nader. Halberstam moved to Yonkers, New York, and graduated from Roosevelt High School in 1951. In 1955, he graduated from Harvard College with an A.B. degree after serving as managing editor of The Harvard Crimson. Halberstam had a rebellious streak and as editor of the Harvard Crimson engaged in a competition to see which columnist could most offend readers.

Career

Halberstam's journalism career began at the Daily Times Leader in West Point, Mississippi, the smallest daily newspaper in Mississippi. He covered the beginnings of the Civil Rights Movement for The Tennessean in Nashville. John Lewis later stated that Halberstam was the only journalist in Nashville who would cover the Nashville sit-ins, organized by the Nashville Student Movement which Halberstam focused on in his 1998 book The Children. Halberstam's fiery, rebellious streak first came out when covering the civil rights movement as he protested against the lies of the authorities who portrayed the civil rights protesters as violent and dangerous.

Republic of the Congo

In August 1961 ,The New York Times dispatched Halberstam to the Republic of the Congo to report on the Congo Crisis. Although initially eager to cover the events in the country, over time he grew jaded over the demanding working conditions and the difficulty in handling Congolese officials' lack of truthfulness. In July 1962 he quickly accepted an opportunity to move to Vietnam to report on the Vietnam War for The New York Times.

Vietnam

Halberstam arrived in Vietnam in the middle of 1962. A tall and well built man, he conveyed much self-confidence and initially the American embassy approved of him. However, Halberstam was openly hostile to any hint of deception, and he soon came into conflict with American officials. When the chief American officer in South Vietnam, General Paul D. Harkins, launched an operation with 45 helicopters flown by American pilots landing a battalion of South Vietnamese infantry to attack a Viet Cong base, Halberstam was forbidden from doing any direct reporting; he was simply told to report the operation as a victory. Halberstam was enraged by this media control, as he expressed in a letter to Frederick Nolting, the Ambassador to South Vietnam. Halberstam wrote about the media blackout: "The reason given is security. This is, of course, stupid, naive and indeed insulting to the patriotism and intelligence of every American newspaperman, and every American newspaper represented here." Halberstam argued that the operation could not have been the victory that Harkins had claimed as the Viet Cong must have heard the helicopters coming and accordingly retreated as guerrillas normally do when faced with superior force, leading him to write: "You can bet the V.C. knew what was happening. You can bet Hanoi knew what was happening. Only American reporters and American readers were kept ignorant."

With the help of military sources like John Paul Vann, an active duty officer in Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), Halberstam, along with colleagues Neil Sheehan of UPI and Malcolm Brown of the AP, challenged the upbeat reporting of the United States mission in South Vietnam. They reported the defeat of government troops at the first major battle of the Vietnam War known as the Battle of Ap Bac. Vann presented Halberstam with a one sided narrative of the events that omitted his own malfeasance in the Battle of Ap Bac. As an air controller, he instructed paratroopers to be inserted in an area which was almost on top of North Vietnamese troops, leading to many unnecessary deaths. President John F. Kennedy tried to get The New York Times to replace Halberstam with a more compliant journalist. The Times refused.

During the Buddhist crisis in 1963, Halberstam and Neil Sheehan debunked the claim by the Diệm regime that the Army of the Republic of Vietnam regular forces had perpetrated the brutal raids on Buddhist temples, which the American authorities had initially believed, but that the Special Forces, loyal to Diệm's brother and strategist Nhu, had done so to frame the army generals. However, this claim proved to be false. On August 18, 1963 ten of the South Vietnames Army's most senior generals, which included Buddhist and Catholics met to discuss the crises involving the Buddhist protests. They concluded that the protests had gone on too long and presented a clear danger to the war effort against the communists and that communist had ingrained themselves amongst the Buddhist protest movement. He was also involved in a scuffle with Nhu's secret police after they punched fellow journalist Peter Arnett while the news men were covering a Buddhist protest. Seeing Arnett lying on the ground being punched and kicked by policemen, Halberstam ran to his rescue, shouting in fury: "Go back, get back you sons of bitches or I'll beat the shit out of you!" As Halberstam spoke in English, the policemen did not understand him, but as he was much taller than the diminutive Vietnamese, the sight of him running at them, red-faced and furious, was enough to cause them to run away.

Halberstam's reporting led to a feud with journalists Marguerite Higgins and Joseph Alsop, and TIME Magazine publisher Henry Luce, who all championed the Diem regime. All three had been members of the "China Lobby", who had been, in the 1930s and 1940s, passionately committed to supporting the Kuomintang regime and believed that the only reason the Kuomintang lost the Chinese Civil War in 1949 was because a few American officials and journalists had chosen to "betray" Chiang Kai-shek, who otherwise would have defeated the Communists. Reporters like Theodore White, who saw and exposed Chiang's corruption and indifference to China's peasants, were – to the China Lobby – defeatists and traitors. (White's insistence on covering the Chiang regime as he saw it would eventually destroy his relationship with Luce, who had been his patron and a close friend.)

The China Lobby tended to approve of Diem for the same reasons that they approved of Chiang, seeing both as pro-Western, modernizing Christian leaders who made their respective nations into copies of the United States. In the same way the China Lobby portrayed Chiang as China's Christian savior because of his conversion to Methodism, and as someone who would presumably convert the rest of the Chinese to Christianity, they saw the Catholic Diem as Vietnam's Christian savior who likewise would convert the Vietnamese to Christianity. Both Higgins and Luce had been born in China to Protestant missionary parents and were very attracted to the idea of one day converting all of the Chinese to Christianity; Chiang's defeat in 1949 had caused them much bitterness. For many members of the China Lobby, South Vietnam was a sort of consolation prize for the "loss of China" in 1949. Halberstam's criticism of Diem sounded very similar to American journalists' criticism of Chiang in the 1940s, and it threatened the possibility of “losing” South Vietnam. This led to their furious attacks on Halberstam. 

Before going to South Vietnam, Higgins was briefed by Marine General, Victor "Brute" Krulak, about what line she was to take. In her first column from Saigon, Higgins called the younger American journalists like Halberstam and Sheenan, "typewriter strategists" who rarely went into battle, further adding: "Reporters here would like to see us lose the war to prove they're right." In response to editors of The New York Times who told Halberstam to change his coverage to gain Higgins's approval, he wrote back: "If you mention that woman's name to me one more time I will resign, repeat resign, and I mean it, repeat, mean it." More dangerous to Halberstam was criticism of Alsop owing to his friendship with the Kennedy brothers. In his columns, Alsop, without naming Halberstam explicitly, mentioned a young reporter from The New York Times who was a "defeatist" who never reported the good news from "Vietnam's fighting front." Halberstam ridiculed Alsop's statement about the "fighting front" as reflecting the ignorance of someone who did not understand guerrilla warfare, where there was no "front" in the sense that Alsop had used the word.

In Halberstam's view, Higgins and Alsop weren't doing any reporting on the ground, they were merely flying into Saigon occasionally to interview US officials and transmit those comments to their American readers. In effect, Halberstam wrote, Higgins and Alsop came to Vietnam "not so much to report on the war as to strengthen policy." Halberstam saw the official, optimistic view of the war as inaccurate – and therefore fundamentally dishonest: "Among lower- and middle-ranking American and Vietnamese officials, there was the working level view," he wrote in his book, The Powers That Be. "It was a view shared by the American reporters. They could see what was really going on, and they refused, in their reporting, to fake it.... The American government was fighting less a war than a public relations campaign."

Halberstam tried to visit North Vietnam. Halberstam asked Mieczysław Maneli, the Polish Commissioner to the International Control Commission, if he would be able to arrange for him to visit North Vietnam. However, Maneli had to tell him that the message from Premier Phạm Văn Đồng was that "We are not interested in building up the prestige of American journalists". Maneli suspected the real reason for refusing Halberstam permission to enter North Vietnam was the belief by the North Vietnamese that he might be an American spy.

Halberstam received the George Polk Award for Foreign Reporting in 1963 for his reporting for The New York Times, including his eyewitness account of the self-immolation of Vietnamese Buddhist monk, Thích Quảng Đức.

Halberstam left Vietnam in 1964, at age 30, and was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting that year. He is interviewed in the 1968 documentary film on the Vietnam War, titled In the Year of the Pig.

Civil Rights Movement and Poland

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In the mid-1960s, Halberstam covered the Civil Rights Movement for The New York Times. He was sent on assignment to Poland, where he soon became "an attraction from behind the Iron Curtain" to the artistic boheme in Warsaw. The result of that fascination was a 12-year marriage to one of the most popular young actresses of that time, Elżbieta Czyżewska, on June 13, 1965.

Initially well received by the communist regime, two years later he was expelled from the country as persona non grata for publishing an article in The New York Times criticizing the Polish government. Czyżewska followed him, becoming an outcast herself; that decision disrupted her career in the country where she was a big star, adored by millions. In the spring of 1967, Halberstam traveled with Martin Luther King Jr. from New York City to Cleveland and then to Berkeley, California for a Harper's article, "The Second Coming of Martin Luther King". While at the Times, he gathered material for his book The Making of a Quagmire: America and Vietnam during the Kennedy Era (which developed the Quagmire theory).

Foreign policy, media works

Halberstam next wrote about President John F. Kennedy's foreign-policy decisions on the Vietnam War in The Best and the Brightest. In 1972 Halberstam went to work on his next book, The Powers That Be, published in 1979 and featuring profiles of media titans like William S. Paley of CBS, Henry Luce of Time magazine, and Phil Graham of The Washington Post.

In 1980 his brother, cardiologist Michael J. Halberstam, was shot and killed during a home invasion by escaped convict and prolific burglar Bernard C. Welch Jr. His only public comment related to his brother's murder came when he and Michael's widow castigated Life magazine, then published monthly, for paying Michael's killer $9,000 to pose in jail for color photographs that appeared on inside pages of the February 1981 edition of Life.

In 1991 Halberstam wrote The Next Century, in which he argued that, after the end of the Cold War, the United States was likely to fall behind economically to other countries such as Japan and Germany.

Sportswriting

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Later in his career, Halberstam turned to sports, publishing The Breaks of the Game, an inside look at Bill Walton and the 1979–80 Portland Trail Blazers basketball team; Summer of '49, on the baseball pennant race battle between the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox; October 1964, on the 1964 World Series between the New York Yankees and St. Louis Cardinals; Playing for Keeps, an ambitious book on Michael Jordan in 1999; The Teammates: A Portrait of a Friendship, focusing on the relationships among several members of the Boston Red Sox in the 1940s; and The Education of a Coach, about New England Patriots head coach Bill Belichick. Much of his sportswriting, particularly his baseball books, focuses on the personalities of the players and the times they lived in as much as on the games themselves.

In particular, Halberstam depicted the 1949 Yankees and Red Sox as symbols of a nobler era, when blue-collar athletes modestly strove to succeed and enter the middle class rather than making millions and defying their owners and talking back to the press. In 1997, Halberstam received the Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award as well as an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Colby College.

Later years

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After publishing four books in the 1960s, including the novel The Noblest Roman, The Making of a Quagmire and The Unfinished Odyssey of Robert Kennedy, he wrote three books in the 1970s, four books in the 1980s, and six books in the 1990s including his 1998 The Children which chronicled the 1959–1962 Nashville Student Movement. He wrote four more books in the 2000s, and was working on at least two others at the time of his death.

In the wake of the September 11 attacks, Halberstam wrote the book Firehouse about the lives of the men from Engine 40, Ladder 35 of the New York City Fire Department. The last book Halberstam completed, The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War, was published posthumously in September 2007.

Death

Halberstam died in a traffic collision on April 23, 2007, in Menlo Park, California, at the age of 73. He was en route to an interview with former San Francisco 49ers and New York Giants quarterback Y. A. Tittle for a book about the 1958 championship game between the Giants and the Baltimore Colts, when the journalism student driving Halberstam to the interview illegally turned into oncoming traffic.

After Halberstam's death, the book project was taken over by Frank Gifford, who had played for the losing New York Giants in the 1958 game, and was titled The Glory Game, published by HarperCollins in October 2008 with an introduction dedicated to Halberstam.

Mentor to other authors

Howard Bryant in the Acknowledgments section of Juicing the Game, his 2005 book about steroids in baseball, said of Halberstam's assistance: "He provided me with a succinct road map and the proper mind-set." Bryant went on to quote Halberstam on how to tackle a controversial non-fiction subject: "Think about three or four moments that you believe to be the most important during your time frame. Then think about what the leadership did about it. It doesn't have to be complicated. What happened, and what did the leaders do about it? That's your book."

Criticism

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Pulitzer Prize-winning Korean War correspondent Marguerite Higgins was pro-Diệm and frequently clashed with Halberstam and his colleagues. She claimed they had ulterior motives, saying "reporters here would like to see us lose the war to prove they're right."

In the Vietnam conflict, Halberstam's reporting for The New York Times led many, including Times editors, to believe that Buddhists were a majority of the Vietnamese population and that the Diệm administration was therefore a minority suppressing a majority. In fact, only 30% of Vietnamese were practicing Buddhists at the time. "The myth of the gravity of the Buddhist crisis was also a point of contention." Halberstam's reporting made the crisis seem much more mainstream than it was.

Historian Mark Moyar claimed that Halberstam, along with fellow journalists Neil Sheehan and Stanley Karnow, helped to bring about the 1963 South Vietnamese coup against President Diệm by sending negative information on Diệm to the U.S. government in news articles and in private, all because they decided Diệm was unhelpful in the war effort. Moyar claims that much of this information was false or misleading. Moyar argues that Halberstram and Karnow relied too heavily on Pham Ngoc Thao and Pham Xuan An as sources: both men were undercover communist spies assigned to mislead journalists.

Newspaper opinion editor Michael Young posits that Halberstam saw Vietnam as a moral tragedy, with America's hubris bringing about its downfall. Young writes that Halberstam reduced everything to human will, turning his subjects into agents of broader historical forces and coming off like a Hollywood movie with a fated and formulaic climax.

Awards and honors

• 2009: Norman Mailer Prize, Distinguished Journalism
• 1994: Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member Neil Sheehan
• 1964: Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting, Malcolm W. Browne and Halberstam

Books

External videos
Interview with Halberstam on The Reckoning, October 1, 1987, C-SPAN
Booknotes interview with Halberstam on The Fifties, July 11, 1993, C-SPAN
Discussion at Fisk University with Halberstam and panelists who were profiled in The Children, March 26, 1998, C-SPAN
Discussion with Halberstam on Playing for Keeps: Michael Jordan and the World He Made, February 22, 1999, C-SPAN
Discussion with Halberstam on War in a Time of Peace, October 7, 2001, C-SPAN
Halberstam interviewed by Ben Bradlee on the influence of The Best and the Brightest, February 13, 2005, C-SPAN

• The Noblest Roman. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. 1961. OCLC 871147. (novel)
• The Making of a Quagmire: America and Vietnam During the Kennedy Era. McGraw-Hill. 1965. ISBN 0-07-555092-X.
• One Very Hot Day. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. 1967. ASIN B000HFUAT4. (novel)
• The Unfinished Odyssey of Robert Kennedy. Random House. 1968. ISBN 0-394-45025-6.
• Ho. McGraw-Hill. 1971. ISBN 0-07-554223-4.
• The Best and the Brightest. Ballantine Books. 1972. ISBN 0-449-90870-4.
• The Powers That Be. Alfred A. Knopf. 1979. ISBN 0-252-06941-2.
• The Breaks of the Game. Ballantine Books. 1981. ISBN 0-345-29625-7.
• The Amateurs: The Story of Four Young Men and Their Quest for an Olympic Gold Medal. Ballantine Books. 1985. ISBN 0-449-91003-2. — about the sport of rowing
• The Reckoning. Avon Books. 1986. ISBN 0-380-72147-3.
• Summer of '49: The Yankees and the Red Sox in Postwar America. New York: William Morrow & Co. 1989. ISBN 0-6880-6678-X.
• The Next Century. Random House. 1991. ISBN 0-517-09882-2.
• The Fifties. Ballantine Books. 1993. ISBN 0-449-90933-6.
• October 1964. Ballantine Books. 1994. ISBN 0-449-98367-6.
• The Children. Ballantine Books. 1998. ISBN 0-449-00439-2.
• Playing for Keeps: Michael Jordan and the World He Made. Broadway Books. 1999. ISBN 0-7679-0444-3.
• War in a Time of Peace: Bush, Clinton, and the Generals. Scribner. 2001. ISBN 0-7432-2323-3.
• Firehouse. Hachette. 2002. ISBN 0-7868-8851-2.
• The Teammates: A Portrait of a Friendship. Hyperion. 2003. ISBN 0-7868-8867-9.
• The Education of a Coach. Hyperion. 2005. ISBN 1-4013-0879-1.
• The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War. Hyperion. 2007. ISBN 978-1-4013-0052-4.
• The Glory Game: How the 1958 NFL Championship Changed Football Forever. HarperCollins. 2008. ISBN 978-0-06-154255-8. — in progress at Halberstam's death; completed by Frank Gifford

See also

• Thích Quảng Đức
• Harrison Salisbury
• Double Seven Day scuffle

References

1. Academy of Achievement biography "David Halberstam Biography -- Academy of Achievement". Archived from the original on March 2, 2014. Retrieved March 2, 2014.; retrieved February 26, 2014.
2. ^ "International Reporting". The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved November 1, 2013-.
3. ^ Haberman, Clyde (April 24, 2007). "David Halberstam, 73, Reporter and Author, Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved November 5, 2016.
4. Packer, George (May 7, 2007). "David Halberstam". The New Yorker.
5. George Packer (May 7, 2007). "Postscript: David Halberstam". The New Yorker.
6. ^ Langguth 2000, p. 195.
7. Lewis, John (1998). Walking with the Wind; A Memoir of the Movement. Simon and Schuster. p. 112. ISBN 9780684810652.
8. Seyb 2017, p. 1.
9. ^ Langguth 2000, p. 196.
10. Moyar, Mark "Triumph Forsaken"
11. Sheehan, Neil, A Bright Shining Lie
12. Moyar, Mark, "Triumph Forsaken"
13. Langguth 2000, p. 218-219.
14. ^ Langguth 2000, p. 219.
15. ^ Langguth 2000, p. 242.
16. Halberstam, David (1979), The Powers That Be, Alfred A. Knopf, pp. 86-88<
17. ^ Langguth 2000, p. 243.
18. ^ Langguth 2000, p. 244.
19. Halberstam, The Powers That Be, p. 449
20. Self-immolation of Buddhist monk.
21. Browder, Laura (May 1, 2016). "The Meaning of the Soldier: In the Year of the Pig and Hearts and Minds". A Companion to the War Film. pp. 356–370. doi:10.1002/9781118337653.ch21. Archived from the original on June 4, 2024.
22. Lyons, Richard D. Slaying Suspect A Puzzle to Neighbors; House Was Toured Periods Away From Home; Control of Handguns Sought, The New York Times, December 8, 1980.
23. Weiser, Benjamin (January 16, 1981). "Slain Halberstam's Kin Attack Deal by Life", The Washington Post, p. B1.
24. Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher (March 15, 1998). "The Next Century". The New York Times.
25. Coté, John (April 23, 2007). "Author David Halberstam killed in Menlo Park". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved April 23, 2007.
26. Coté, John (February 15, 2008). "Driver in Halberstam crash gets 5 days in jail". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved November 17, 2021.
27. Nader, Ralph (June 2, 2007). "In Memory of David Halberstam". Common Dreams. Archived from the original on October 7, 2012. Retrieved November 5, 2016.
28. Schafer, Michael (1990). The Legacy: The Vietnam War in the American Imagination. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. p. 134. ISBN 0-8070-5400-3. Retrieved August 26, 2015.
29. Toong, Zi Jun (2008). "Overthrown by the Press: The US Media's Role in the Fall of Diem". Australasian Journal of American Studies. 27 (1): 56–72, at 63.
30. Gary Shapiro (April 30, 2007). "Mark Moyar, Historian of Vietnam, Finds Academe Hostile to a Hawk", The New York Sun; accessed November 4, 2016.
31. Moyar, Mark (July 5, 2007). "Halberstam's History". The National Review. Retrieved August 26, 2015.
32. Moyar, Mark. Triumph Forsaken: The Vietnam War, 1954–1965. Cambridge University Press, 2006, pgs 214-15
33. Young, M. (April 26, 2007). "A Man of Sharp Angles and Firm Truths", Reason Online; accessed November 4, 2016.
34. "Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement". www.achievement.org. American Academy of Achievement.

Works cited

• Seyb, Ronald P. (2017). "Young Man and War: David Halberstam's Empathetic Reporting during the Congo Crisis". Journalism History. 43 (2): 75–85. doi:10.1080/00947679.2017.12059168. ISSN 0094-7679. S2CID 150008826.
• Langguth, A.J. (2000). Our Vietnam: The War 1954-1975. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-1231-2.

Further reading

• The History Boys, Halberstam's final essay, "debunks the Bush administration's wild distortion of history", vanityfair.com, August 2007
• Spring 2000 Commencement Address Archived September 7, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, University of Michigan], April 2000 @umich.edu; accessed November 4, 2016
• Spring 2003 Commencement Address at Tulane University, tulane.edu; accessed November 4, 2016.
• A film clip "Power In America (1986)" is available for viewing at the Internet Archive
• "Nashville Was My Graduate School" — a 2001 reminiscence by Halberstam of his early career at The Tennessean
• Shafer, Jack (April 24, 2007). "David Halberstam (1934–2007)". Slate. Retrieved April 26, 2007.
• Packer, George (May 7, 2007). "Postscript: David Halberstam". The New Yorker. Retrieved April 30, 2007.
• Appreciations: Halberstam on Journalism, nytimes.com; accessed November 4, 2016

External links

• Appearances on C-SPAN
  • In Depth interview with Halberstam, November 4, 2001
  • "Writings of Halberstam and Sheehan", C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
• David Halberstam at IMDb
• David Halberstam at Library of Congress
• Obituary, economist.com
• Obituary, blastmagazine.com, May 2007
• Obituary, nytimes.com, April 24, 2007
• David Halberstam at Find a Grave

v t e Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
Events (timeline)	Prior to 1954 Journey of Reconciliation Executive Order 9981 Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore Sweatt v. Painter (1950) McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950) Baton Rouge bus boycott 1954–1959 Brown v. Board of Education Bolling v. Sharpe Briggs v. Elliott Davis v. Prince Edward County Gebhart v. Belton Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company Emmett Till Montgomery bus boycott Browder v. Gayle Tallahassee bus boycott Mansfield school desegregation 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom "Give Us the Ballot" Royal Ice Cream sit-in Little Rock Nine Cooper v. Aaron Civil Rights Act of 1957 Ministers' Manifesto Katz Drug Store sit-in Kissing Case Biloxi wade-ins 1960–1963 New Year's Day March Sit-in movement Greensboro sit-ins Nashville sit-ins Sibley Commission Atlanta sit-ins Savannah Protest Movement Greenville Eight Civil Rights Act of 1960 Ax Handle Saturday Gomillion v. Lightfoot Boynton v. Virginia University of Georgia desegregation riot Rock Hill sit-ins Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address Freedom Rides Anniston bombing Birmingham attack Garner v. Louisiana Albany Movement Cambridge movement University of Chicago sit-ins "Second Emancipation Proclamation" Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot Atlanta's Berlin Wall "Segregation now, segregation forever" Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 1963 Birmingham campaign Letter from Birmingham Jail Children's Crusade Birmingham riot 16th Street Baptist Church bombing John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights Detroit Walk to Freedom March on Washington "I Have a Dream" Big Six St. Augustine movement 1964–1968 Twenty-fourth Amendment Chester school protests Bloody Tuesday 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests Freedom Summer workers' murders Civil Rights Act of 1964 Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States Katzenbach v. McClung 1964–1965 Scripto strike 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches "How Long, Not Long" Voting Rights Act of 1965 Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections March Against Fear White House Conference on Civil Rights Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement Loving v. Virginia Memphis sanitation strike King assassination funeral riots Civil Rights Act of 1968 Poor People's Campaign Green v. County School Board of New Kent County Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. 1968 Olympics Black Power salute
Activist groups	Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights Atlanta Negro Voters League Atlanta Student Movement Black Panther Party Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Committee for Freedom Now Committee on Appeal for Human Rights An Appeal for Human Rights Council for United Civil Rights Leadership Council of Federated Organizations Dallas County Voters League Deacons for Defense and Justice Georgia Council on Human Relations Highlander Folk School Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights Lowndes County Freedom Organization Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party Montgomery Improvement Association NAACP Youth Council Nashville Student Movement Nation of Islam Northern Student Movement National Council of Negro Women National Urban League Operation Breadbasket Regional Council of Negro Leadership Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Southern Regional Council Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) The Freedom Singers United Auto Workers (UAW) Wednesdays in Mississippi Women's Political Council
Activists	Ralph Abernathy Victoria Gray Adams Zev Aelony Mathew Ahmann Muhammad Ali William G. Anderson Gwendolyn Armstrong Arnold Aronson Ella Baker James Baldwin Marion Barry Daisy Bates Harry Belafonte James Bevel Claude Black Gloria Blackwell Randolph Blackwell Unita Blackwell Ezell Blair Jr. Joanne Bland Julian Bond Joseph E. Boone William Holmes Borders Amelia Boynton Bruce Boynton Raylawni Branch Stanley Branche Ruby Bridges Aurelia Browder H. Rap Brown Ralph Bunche John H. Calhoun Guy Carawan Stokely Carmichael Johnnie Carr James Chaney J. L. Chestnut Shirley Chisholm Colia Lafayette Clark Ramsey Clark Septima Clark Xernona Clayton Eldridge Cleaver Kathleen Cleaver Josephine Dobbs Clement Charles E. Cobb Jr. Annie Lee Cooper Dorothy Cotton Claudette Colvin Vernon Dahmer Jonathan Daniels Abraham Lincoln Davis Angela Davis Joseph DeLaine Dave Dennis Annie Bell Robinson Devine John Wesley Dobbs Patricia Stephens Due Joseph Ellwanger Charles Evers Medgar Evers Myrlie Evers-Williams Chuck Fager James Farmer Walter Fauntroy James Forman Marie Foster Golden Frinks Andrew Goodman Robert Graetz Fred Gray Jack Greenberg Dick Gregory Lawrence Guyot Prathia Hall Fannie Lou Hamer Fred Hampton William E. Harbour Vincent Harding Dorothy Height Audrey Faye Hendricks Lola Hendricks Aaron Henry Oliver Hill Donald L. Hollowell James Hood Myles Horton Zilphia Horton T. R. M. Howard Ruby Hurley Cecil Ivory Jesse Jackson Jimmie Lee Jackson Richie Jean Jackson T. J. Jemison Esau Jenkins Barbara Rose Johns Vernon Johns Frank Minis Johnson Clarence Jones J. Charles Jones Matthew Jones Vernon Jordan Tom Kahn Clyde Kennard A. D. King C.B. King Coretta Scott King Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Sr. Bernard Lafayette James Lawson Bernard Lee Sanford R. Leigh Jim Letherer Stanley Levison John Lewis Viola Liuzzo Z. Alexander Looby Joseph Lowery Clara Luper Danny Lyon Malcolm X Mae Mallory Vivian Malone Bob Mants Thurgood Marshall Benjamin Mays Franklin McCain Charles McDew Ralph McGill Floyd McKissick Joseph McNeil James Meredith William Ming Jack Minnis Amzie Moore Cecil B. Moore Douglas E. Moore Harriette Moore Harry T. Moore Queen Mother Moore William Lewis Moore Irene Morgan Bob Moses William Moyer Elijah Muhammad Diane Nash Charles Neblett Huey P. Newton Edgar Nixon Jack O'Dell James Orange Rosa Parks James Peck Charles Person Homer Plessy Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Fay Bellamy Powell Rodney N. Powell Al Raby Lincoln Ragsdale A. Philip Randolph George Raymond George Raymond Jr. Bernice Johnson Reagon Cordell Reagon James Reeb Frederick D. Reese Walter Reuther Gloria Richardson David Richmond Bernice Robinson Jo Ann Robinson Angela Russell Bayard Rustin Bernie Sanders Michael Schwerner Bobby Seale Pete Seeger Cleveland Sellers Charles Sherrod Alexander D. Shimkin Fred Shuttlesworth Modjeska Monteith Simkins Glenn E. Smiley A. Maceo Smith Kelly Miller Smith Mary Louise Smith Maxine Smith Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson Charles Kenzie Steele Hank Thomas Dorothy Tillman A. P. Tureaud Hartman Turnbow Albert Turner C. T. Vivian A. T. Walden Wyatt Tee Walker Hollis Watkins Walter Francis White Roy Wilkins Hosea Williams Kale Williams Robert F. Williams Q. V. Williamson Andrew Young Whitney Young Sammy Younge Jr. Bob Zellner James Zwerg
By region	Omaha, Nebraska South Carolina
Movement songs	"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round" "If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus" "Kumbaya" "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize" "Oh, Freedom" "This Little Light of Mine" "We Shall Not Be Moved" "We Shall Overcome" "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"
Influences	Nonviolence Padayatra Sermon on the Mount Mahatma Gandhi Ahimsa Satyagraha The Kingdom of God Is Within You Frederick Douglass W. E. B. Du Bois Mary McLeod Bethune
Related	Jim Crow laws Lynching in the United States Plessy v. Ferguson Separate but equal Buchanan v. Warley Hocutt v. Wilson Sweatt v. Painter Hernandez v. Texas Loving v. Virginia African-American women in the movement Jews in the civil rights movement Fifth Circuit Four 16th Street Baptist Church Kelly Ingram Park A.G. Gaston Motel Bethel Baptist Church Brown Chapel Dexter Avenue Baptist Church Holt Street Baptist Church Edmund Pettus Bridge March on Washington Movement African-American churches attacked List of lynching victims in the United States Freedom Schools Freedom songs Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence" Voter Education Project 1960s counterculture African American founding fathers of the United States Eyes on the Prize
Legacy	In popular culture Birmingham Civil Rights Institute Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument Civil Rights Memorial Civil Rights Movement Archive Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument Freedom Rides Museum Freedom Riders National Monument King Center for Nonviolent Social Change Martin Luther King Jr. Day Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial other King memorials Mississippi Civil Rights Museum National Civil Rights Museum National Voting Rights Museum St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument Olympic Black Power Statue
Noted historians	Taylor Branch Clayborne Carson John Dittmer Michael Eric Dyson Chuck Fager Adam Fairclough David Garrow David Halberstam Vincent Harding Steven F. Lawson Doug McAdam Diane McWhorter Charles M. Payne Thomas E. Ricks Timothy Tyson Akinyele Umoja Movement photographers
Civil rights movement portal

v t e Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting
Previously the Pulitzer Prize for Telegraphic Reporting – International from 1942–1947
1942–1950	Laurence Edmund Allen (1942) Ira Wolfert (1943) Daniel De Luce (1944) Mark S. Watson (1945) Homer Bigart (1946) Eddy Gilmore (1947) Paul W. Ward (1948) Price Day (1949) Edmund Stevens (1950)
1951–1975	Keyes Beech, Homer Bigart, Marguerite Higgins, Relman Morin, Fred Sparks & Don Whitehead (1951) John M. Hightower (1952) Austin Wehrwein (1953) Jim G. Lucas (1954) Harrison E. Salisbury (1955) William Randolph Hearst Jr., J. Kingsbury-Smith & Frank Conniff (1956) Russell Jones (1957) Staff of The New York Times (1958) Joseph Martin & Philip Santora (1959) A. M. Rosenthal (1960) Lynn Heinzerling (1961) Walter Lippmann (1962) Hal Hendrix (1963) Malcolm W. Browne & David Halberstam (1964) J. A. Livingston (1965) Peter Arnett (1966) R. John Hughes (1967) Alfred Friendly (1968) William Tuohy (1969) Seymour M. Hersh (1970) Jimmie Lee Hoagland (1971) Peter R. Kann (1972) Max Frankel (1973) Hedrick Smith (1974) William Mullen (1975 shared) Ovie Carter (1975 shared)
1976–2000	Sydney H. Schanberg (1976) Henry Kamm (1978) Richard Ben Cramer (1979) Joel Brinkley & Jay Mather (1980) Shirley Christian (1981) John Darnton (1982) Thomas L. Friedman & Loren Jenkins (1983) Karen Elliott House (1984) Joshua Friedman, Dennis Bell & Ozier Muhammad (1985) Lewis M. Simons, Pete Carey & Katherine Ellison (1986) Michael Parks (1987) Thomas L. Friedman (1988) Bill Keller & Glenn Frankel (1989) Nicholas D. Kristof & Sheryl WuDunn (1990) Caryle Murphy & Serge Schmemann (1991) Patrick J. Sloyan (1992) John F. Burns & Roy Gutman (1993) Staff of The Dallas Morning News (1994) Mark Fritz (1995) David Rohde (1996) John F. Burns (1997) Staff of The New York Times (1998) Staff of The Wall Street Journal (1999) Mark Schoofs (2000)
2001–2025	Ian Denis Johnson & Paul Salopek (2001) Barry Bearak (2002) Kevin Sullivan & Mary Jordan (2003) Anthony Shadid (2004) Kim Murphy & Dele Olojede (2005) Joseph Kahn & Jim Yardley (2006) Staff of The Wall Street Journal (2007) Steve Fainaru (2008) Staff of The New York Times (2009) Anthony Shadid (2010) Clifford J. Levy & Ellen Barry (2011) Jeffrey Gettleman (2012) David Barboza (2013) Jason Szep & Andrew R. C. Marshall (2014) Staff of The New York Times (2015) Alissa J. Rubin (2016) Staff of The New York Times (2017) Clare Baldwin, Andrew R.C. Marshall & Manuel Mogato (2018) Maggie Michael, Maad al-Zikry & Nariman El-Mofty (2019) Staff of Reuters including Wa Lone & Kyaw Soe Oo (2019) Staff of The New York Times (2020) Megha Rajagopalan, Alison Killing & Christo Buschek (2021) Staff of The New York Times including Azmat Khan (2022) Staff of The New York Times (2023)

• 1934 births
• 2007 deaths
• American military writers
• American political writers
• American war correspondents of the Vietnam War
• The New York Times journalists
• American male non-fiction writers
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• Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award recipients
• Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting winners
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