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Tanker wars
Part of the Iran–Iraq War
Date 1981 – 4 August 1988 Location Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, Sea of Oman Result UNSCR 598 Operation Earnest Will
Belligerents
Iran Supported by:  Pakistan	Iraq Supported by:  United States  Saudi Arabia  Kuwait
Units involved
Iranian Navy IRGC Navy Iranian Air Force	Iraqi Navy Iraqi Air Force United States Navy Royal Saudi Air Force

The tanker war, part of the larger Iran–Iraq War, was a series of military attacks by Iran and Iraq against merchant vessels in the Persian Gulf and Strait of Hormuz from 1981 to 1988. Iraq was responsible for 283 attacks while Iran accounted for 168.

History

The Iran-Iraq war began in September 1980. Before 1984, attacks against shipping had occurred, albeit on a much smaller scale. In December 1980, UN Secretary General Kurt Waldheim appealed to Iran and Iraq to ensure the security of peaceful shipping in the Gulf. At that time, Iran assured other countries that it would keep the Strait of Hormuz open.

In his 1988 review paper O'Rouke wrote that "Iran trapped or destroyed many Iraqi ships in port in the early stages of the war. But Iraq started the tanker war in the Gulf proper in 1981 by initiating attacks on ships steaming to or from Iranian ports at the extreme northern end of the Gulf. Iraq continued these attacks into 1984 without a parallel Iranian response at sea. In March of that year, however, Iraq increased the rate of its attacks and expanded their geographic scope by attacking ships serving more southerly Iranian points, particularly the oil-loading complex at Kharg Island. Two months later, Iran initiated its own attacks, and the tanker war became a two-way affair."

Iraq broadened the tanker war in 1984 by attacking the oil terminal and oil tankers at Kharg Island. Iraq's aim in attacking Iranian shipping was to provoke the Iranians to retaliate with extreme measures, such as closing the Strait of Hormuz to all maritime traffic, thereby bringing about foreign intervention against Iran; the United States had threatened several times to intervene if the Strait of Hormuz were closed. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia supported Iraq against Iran. The United States intervened in the conflict in 1986 to protect Kuwaiti tankers, and engaged in a confrontation with Iran.

Both sides had declared an "exclusion zone", meaning areas in which they had warned ships from entering. Iraq declared the area around Iran's Kharg Island to be an exclusion zone. Kharg Island hosted Iran's principal oil shipment port. Iraq gave precise definition, in coordinates, of this exclusion zone and gave advance notification to all countries. However, Iraq did not designate any safe passage routes in this zone.

Iran declared all waters within 40 miles of its coast to be its exclusion zone. It instructed ships headed for non-Iranian ports to sail west of this line. While Iran also did not designate any safe passages in its exclusion zone, this was unnecessary. Iran's exclusion zone allowed for ships to enter and exit the Gulf, and essentially only kept such foreign ships out of its own waters.

Iran's exclusion zone made it easier for Iraq to target Iranian ships. It allowed Iraq to assume that any ship in Iran's territorial waters must be going to (or coming from) an Iranian port.

Phillips writes that "In January 1987, the Kuwaiti government proposed a clever scheme to deter Iranian attacks against their shipping. They asked the United States if they could reflag Kuwaiti tankers as American and receive the protection of the U.S. Navy. The administration of President Ronald Reagan debated this idea but finally agreed to it on March 7, 1987." These are known to O'Rourke as "reflagged Kuwaiti ships".

On 17 May 1987, 37 US sailors were killed by an Iraqi attack on the USS Stark.

United Nations Security Council Resolution 598, was adopted unanimously on 20 July 1987, which engendered Operation Earnest Will (24 July 1987 – 26 September 1988), a successful US effort to protect Kuwaiti merchandise and vessel, because as noted by O'Rourke: "Aside from Iranian shipping, the most frequent victims have been ships steaming under the world's predominant flags of convenience." Western-led convoy tactics with armed guard vessels were used for protection in the latter stages of the Tanker War. In 1987 the use of towed, radar-deflecting decoys and other passive countermeasures was successfully initiated.

In total, well over 100 sailors were killed and a similar number wounded. More than 30 million tons of cargo was damaged from 1981 through 1987. It is in this conflict that in 1987 Iran perfected the art of speedboat attacks, and concentrated "their fire on the crew compartments of their target ships." Iran also used Chinese-made shore-based Silkworm missiles to good effect.

List of attacks

1984

Date	Vessel attacked			Agent	Result	Ref
	Name	Flag	GRT/Date
1984-03-01	Charming	United Kingdom	Un­known	Iraqi missile	aground
1984-03-01(?)	Sema-G	Turkey	Un­known	Iraqi missile	set afire
1984-03-04	APJ Ambika	India	16000	Iraqi missile	sunk
1984-03-29	Iran Dahr	Iran	12257/71	Iraqi missile	damaged
1984-05-27	Savoy Dean	Liberia	19291/68	Iraqi missile	minor damage
1984-06-03	Büyük Hun	Turkey	80683/77	Iraqi missiles	severe damage
1984-06-03	Giant Kirn	Panama	32107/71	Unidentified missile	set afire
1984-06-06	Dashaki	Liberia	19291/68	Iraqi missile	severe damage
1984-06-10	Kazimah	Kuwait	160010/82	Unidentified a/c	severe damage
1984-06-24	Alexander the Great	Greece	152372/73	Iraqi Exocet missile	severe damage
1984-06-27	Tiburón	Liberia	125389/73	Iraqi missile	severe damage
1984-07-01	Al Kabeer	Panama	16575/65	Iraqi a/c	aground
1984-07-01	Sitia Venture	Panama	15991/66	Iraqi a/c	aground
1984-07-01	Alexandra Dyo	Cyprus	13316/69	Iraqi a/c	attacked
1984-07-02	Won Jin	South Korea	6164/74	Iraqi missiles	severe damage
1984-07-05	Primrose	Liberia	122203/76	Unidentified missiles	slight damage
1984-07-10	British Renown	United Kingdom	122203/76	Iranian a/c	slight damage
1984-08-18	Endeavour	Panama	47310/76	Unidentified missile	set afire
1984-08-24	Amethyst	Cyprus	31280/63	Unidentified missile	set afire
1984-08-27	Cleo 1	Panama	20880/59	Unidentified missile	set afire
1984-09-11	St. Tobias	Liberia	115025/71	Unidentified missile	minor damage
1984-09-12	Good Wind	Panama	11525/70	Iraqi missile	set afire
1984-09-16	Med Heron	Liberia	60655/77	Unidentified missile	Un­known
1984-09-16	Royal Colombo	South Korea	74474/75	Unidentified missile	Un­known
1984-10-08	World Knight	Liberia	114573/75	Iraqi missile	severe damage
1984-10-11	Jag Pari	India	20991/82	Iranian (?) bomb	minor damage
1984-10-12	Gaz Fountain	Panama	23796/69	Unidentified missile	set afire
1984-10-15	Sivand	Iran	108721/71	Iraqi a/c	set afire

1985

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1986

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1987

Date	Vessel attacked			Agent	Result	Ref
	Name	Flag	GRT/Date
1987-07-24	SS Bridgeton	United States		Iranian mine	damaged
1987-08-10	Texaco Caribbean	Panama		Iranian mine	damaged
1987-08-15	Anita			Iranian mine	sunk
1987-08-30	Sanandaj	Iran	129770/73	Iraqi a/c	damaged
1987-09-01	Astro Pegasus	South Korea	42510/75	Iranian w/s g/f	damaged
1987-09-01	Bigorange XIV	Panama	197/56	Iraqi a/c	sunk
1987-09-01	Munguia	Spain	140277/77	Iranian PG	set afire
1987-09-01	Star Ray	Cyprus	99011/70	Iraqi missile	damaged
1987-09-02	Nisshin Maru	Japan	103099/80	Iranian PG	damaged
1987-09-02	Dafni	Greece	48473/57	Iranian boats	set afire
1987-09-02	Diamond Marine	Liberia	101416/74	Iranian boats	holed
1987-09-02	Jolly Rubino	Italy	19418/78	Iranian boats	minor damage
1987-09-02	Leonidas Glory	Cyprus	3717/73	Iranian boats	minor damage
1987-09-09	Haven	Cyprus	109700/73	Iranian PG	damaged
1987-09-20	Khark 2	Iran	137895/70	Iraqi a/c	damaged
1987-09-20	Petroship B	Saudi Arabia	25614/75	Iranian PG	minor damage
1987-09-20	Shirvan	Iran	41439/79	Iraqi a/c	damaged
1987-09-21	Gentle Breeze	British Hong Kong	57462/70	Iranian PG	severe damage
1987-09-21	Marissa I	Panama	181/69	Iranian mine	sunk
1987-09-27	Coral Cape	Cyprus	112825/74	Iraqi missile (2)	damaged
1987-09-27	Iran Sepah	Iran	19702/76	Iraqi a/c	damaged
1987-09-27	Merlin	Cyprus	110037/71	Iraqi missile (2)	damaged
1987-09-27	Shirvan	Iran	41439/79	Iraqi missile	damaged
1987-09-29	Khark	Iran	127453/73	Iraqi a/c	damaged
1987-09-29	Koriana	Greece	38629/85	Iranian w/s	slight damage
1987-09-30	Western City	Liberia	105803/75	Iranian PGs	minor damage
1987-10-01	Nichiharu Maru	Japan	120694/73	Iranian PGs	minor damage
1987-10-01	Johar	Pakistan	49635/76	Iranian PGs	minor damage
1987-10-01	Shenton Bluff	Australia	150/79	Iraqi missile	severe damage
1987-10-02	Felicity	Cyprus	53226/68	Iraqi missile	set afire
1987-10-02	Spic Emerald	India	11712/83	Iranian PG	set afire
1987-10-05	Brazil Star	Panama	77294/72	Iraqi a/c	minor damage
1987-10-05	Seawise Giant	Liberia	238558/76	Iraqi a/c	minor damage
1987-10-05	Shining Star	Cyprus	128929/71	Iraqi missile	severe damage
1987-10-05	World Admiral	Liberia	106673/74	Iraqi missile	minor damage
1987-10-08	Tomoe 8	Panama	5267/86	Iranian PG	set afire
1987-10-10	Rova	Liberia	105286/75	Iraqi missiles	severe damage
1987-10-12	Marianthi M.	Panama	13006/65	Iraqi missile	damaged
1987-10-13	Atlantic Peace	Liberia	43943/83	Iranian PG g/f	minor damage
1987-10-14	Pegasus I	Liberia	104918/73	Iraqi a/c	damaged
1987-10-15	Sungari	Liberia	124085/75	Iranian missile	set afire
1987-10-16	Sea Isle City	United States	55454/81	Iranian missile	moderate damage
1987-10-23	Prosperventure L.	Panama	27333/87	Iranian PG	set afire
1987-11-04	Taftan	Iran	141883/73	Iraqi a/c	damaged
1987-11-06	Grand Wisdom	Panama	51121/76	Iranian w/s	minor damage
1987-11-11	Fortuneship L.	Greece	118216/75	Iraqi GM (3)	damaged
1987-11-11	Liquid Bulk Explorer	Panama	7060/72	Iranian PG	slight damage
1987-11-12	Yousef	Iran	584/84	Iraqi a/c	hit
1987-11-13	Salvital	Singapore	742/76	Iraqi GM	severe damage
1987-11-15	Lucy	Liberia	36512/86	Iranian PG	damaged
1987-11-16	Esso Freeport	Bahamas	122967/74	Iranian PGs	minor damage
1987-11-16	Filikon L.	Greece	41330/76	Iranian PGs	moderate damage
1987-11-19	Salvenus	Singapore	699/78	Iraqi GMs	severe damage
1987-11-20	Tabriz	Iran	41440/80	Iraqi a/c	damaged
1987-11-22	Andromeda	Greece	38627/84	Iranian PG	damaged
1987-11-23	Fundulea	Romania	6253/80	Iranian PGs	damaged
1987-11-23	Uni-Master	Panama	11648/77	Iranian w/s	slight damage
1987-11-26	Umm al Jathathel	Kuwait	47169/83	Iranian w/s	Un­known
1987-11-29	Khark 4	Iran	127450/73	Iraqi a/c	moderate damage
1987-12-02	Anax	Cyprus	122936/72	Iraqi a/c	slight damage
1987-12-04	Actinia	Cyprus	109567/75	Iraqi a/c	severe damage
1987-12-06	Estelle Mærsk	Denmark	28010/87	Iranian PGs	minor damage
1987-12-06	Norman Atlantic	Singapore	42093/73	Iranian PGs	sunk
1987-12-08	Alamoot	Iran	163173/77	Iraqi a/c	severe damage
1987-12-09	Susangird	Iran	111287/73	Iraqi a/c	severe damage
1987-12-11	Tharaleos	Greece	51372/69	Iranian FF	minor damage
1987-12-12	Pivot	Cyprus	109700/75	Iranian FF	damaged
1987-12-15	Mimi M.	Cyprus	16246/74	Iraqi a/c	severe damage
1987-12-16	Taftan	Iran	141883/73	Iraqi a/c	minor damage
1987-12-16	World Produce	Greece	17277/84	Iranian PG	moderate damage
1987-12-17	Island Transporter	Maldives	9714/68	Iranian PGs	damaged
1987-12-18	Free Enterprise	Malta	113780/72	Iraqi a/c	went aground
1987-12-18	Happy Kari	Norway	140227/74	Iranian PGs	set afire
1987-12-18	Saudi Splendour	Liberia	125394/75	Iranian PG	moderate damage
1987-12-19	Karama Mærsk	Denmark	167728/77	Iranian PGs	slight damage
1987-12-22	British Respect	Gibraltar	136601/74	Iraqi a/c	set afire
1987-12-22	Burmah Enterprise	Bermuda	231629/78	Iraqi a/c	severe damage
1987-12-22	Seawise Giant	Liberia	238558/76	Iraqi a/c	set afire
1987-12-22	World Petrobras	Liberia	193778/77	Iraqi a/c	damaged
1987-12-22	Stena Concordia	Liberia	122199/73	Iranian FF	damaged
1987-12-23	Berge Big	Norway	136364/75	Iranian PGs	set afire
1987-12-25	Hyundai No. 7	South Korea	11686/78	Iranian PGs	set afire
1987-12-25	Nejmat el Petrol	Saudi Arabia	12964/64	Iranian PGs	set afire
1987-12-27	Stilikon	Panama	96747/64	Iraqi GM	set afire
1987-12-31	Iran Sedaghat	Iran	4474/71	Iraqi a/c	decoy

1988

1988-01-01 to 1988-03-27 Date Vessel attacked Agent Result Ref Name Flag GRT/Date 1988-01-01 Alga  Malta 16134/72 Iraqi GM slight damage 1988-01-10 Khark 3  Iran 137895/71 Iraqi a/c minor damage 1988-01-12 United Venture  Cyprus 13161/69 Iranian GM severe damage 1988-01-14 Petrobulk Pioneer  Liberia 20446/80 Iranian w/s damaged aft 1988-01-15 Atlantic Charisma  Liberia 23127/87 Iranian w/s damaged 1988-01-15 Igloo Espoo  Norway 10105/85 Iranian PGs damaged 1988-01-16 Rainbow  Liberia 7589/82 Iranian PGs severe damage 1988-01-22 Havpil  Singapore 10977/69 Iranian PG minor damage 1988-01-22 Topaz  Panama 85690/76 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-01-22 Torm Rottina  Denmark 20036/76 Iranian PGs attacked 1988-01-27 Coral Cape  Cyprus 112825/74 Iraqi imissile damaged 1988-01-29 Khark  Iran 116404/75 Iraqi a/c minor damage 1988-01-29 Khark 5  Iran 138394/75 Iraqi a/c minor damage 1988-01-30 Mare  Panama 9111/72 Iranian PGs sunk 1988-02-03 Makran  Iran 16000/74 Iraqi missile set afire 1988-02-03 Petrobulk Ruler  Norway 20505/75 Iranian PG damaged 1988-02-05 Tavistock  Panama 87464/71 Iranian PGs damaged 1988-02-07 Khark 5  Iran 138394/75 Iraqi a/c set afire 1988-02-07 Diane  Liberia 38241/87 Iranian FF set afire 1988-02-09 Shir Kooh  Iran 140465/73 Iraqi a/c damaged 1988-02-09 Veronique  Liberia 38795/76 Iranian FF damaged aft 1988-02-11 Happy Kari  Norway 38795/76 Iranian PGs set afire 1988-02-12 Kate Mærsk  Denmark 167207/76 Iraqi a/c set afire 1988-02-15 Soleiman  Iran 1019/84 Iraqi a/c severe damage 1988-03-08 Tenacity  Malta 41195/65 Iraqi a/c minor damage 1988-03-15 Trade Fortitude  Liberia 113950/72 Iraqi a/c damaged 1988-03-18 Berge Lord  Norway 138008/73 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-03-18 Kyrnicos  Cyprus 41922/67 Iraqi a/c moderate damage 1988-03-18 Maria 2  Panama 22845/80 Iranian PGs set afire 1988-03-18 Neptune Subaru  Singapore 22845/80 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-03-19 Avaj  Iran 162028/75 Iraqi a/c severe damage 1988-03-19 Sanandaj  Iran 129770/73 Iraqi a/c severe damage 1988-03-20 Atlantic Peace  Liberia 43943/83 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-03-21 Fumi  Liberia 36674/84 Iranian PGs set afire 1988-03-21 Iberian Reefer  Spain 7949/85 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-03-22 Havglimt  Singapore 28941/78 Iranian w/s minor damage 1988-03-22 Stavros G.L.  Greece 163810/76 Iranian PGs set afire 1988-03-23 Odysseas H.  Cyprus 18876/72 Iranian PGs severe damage 1988-03-27 Jainarayan Vyas  India 15035/75 Iranian PGs moderate damage

1988-03-28 to 1988-08-04 Date Vessel attacked Agent Result Ref Name Flag GRT/Date 1988-03-28 Karama Mærsk  Denmark 167728/77 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-03-28 Golar Kansai  Liberia 98905/72 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-03-30 Anax  Cyprus 122936/72 Iraqi a/c disabled 1988-03-31 Haven  Cyprus 109700/73 Iraqi FF aground 1988-04-12 Sagheera  Saudi Arabia 20817/81 Iranian PGs set afire 1988-04-18 Omnium Pride  Cyprus 13858/71 Iranian PGs set afire 1988-04-18 Willi Tide  United States 283/79 Iran attacked 1988-04-18 York Marine  British Hong Kong 60814/75 Iranian w/s set afire 1988-04-19 Fal V  United Arab Emirates 7214/72 Iranian PGs damaged 1988-04-24 Sea Trader  Liberia 19482/76 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-05-11 Khark  Iran 116404/75 Iraqi a/c damaged 1988-05-11 Iran Nahad  Iran 11205/70 Iraqi a/c severe damage 1988-05-12 Sea Sapphire  Panama 11205/70 Iraqi a/c severe damage 1988-05-14 Argosy  Cyprus 71080/70 Iraqi a/c severe damage 1988-05-14 Barcelona  Spain 122770/72 Iraqi a/c severe damage 1988-05-14 Beaufort  Belgium 475/78 Iraqi a/c severe damage 1988-05-14 Safir  Belgium 475/78 Iraqi a/c severe damage 1988-05-14 Scan Partner  Panama 499/79 Iraqi a/c sunk 1988-05-14 Seawise Giant  Liberia 238558/79 Iraqi a/c severe damage 1988-05-14 Burmah Endeavour  Bahamas 231269/77 Iraqi a/c minor damage 1988-05-16 Bisoton  Iran 112445/72 Iraqi a/c minor damage 1988-05-18 Ace Chemi  Panama 112445/72 Iranian PGs set afire 1988-05-19 Barge Strand  Norway 43849/82 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-05-26 Mundogas Rio  Liberia 12251/67 Iranian PGs damaged 1988-05-26 Don Miguel  Malta 10526/76 Iranian PGs damaged 1988-06-04 Shoush  Iran 113788/72 Iraqi a/c Un­known 1988-06-09 Salverve  Singapore 742/76 Iraqi a/c damaged 1988-06-11 Dhaulagiri  West Germany 7895/82 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-06-11 Esso Demetia  United Kingdom 125293/73 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-06-11 Iran Fallahi  Iran 17716/72 Iraq a/c Un­known 1988-06-14 Neptune Subaru  Singapore 51894/86 Iranian PGs moderate damage 1988-07-01 Khark 4  Iran 127450/73 Iraqi a/c damaged 1988-07-01 Fortuneship L  Greece 118216/75 Iraqi a/c damaged 1988-07-03 Berge Strand  Norway 43849/82 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-07-07 Fellowship L  Greece 118215/74 Iraqi a/c set afire 1988-07-08 Star Ray  Cyprus 107432/70 Iraqi a/c set afire 1988-07-12 Universal Monarch  Panama 40840/81 Iranian PGs damaged 1988-07-15 Sea Victory  Liberia 43456/69 Iranian PGs minor damage 1988-08-04 Berge Lord  Norway 138008/73 Iranian PGs minor damage

Notes

1. ^ constructive loss
2. ^ tug
3. ^ salvage tug
4. ^ hit in error
5. tug towing Iran Nahad
6. ^ tugs damaged by explosion of Barcelona

References

Footnotes

1. Allam, Shah (October–December 2004). "Iran-Pakistan Relations: Political and Strategic Dimensions" (PDF). Strategic Analysis. 28 (4). The Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses: 526. doi:10.1080/09700160408450157. S2CID 154492122. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
2. Mir, Furrukh (2011). Half Truth. : iUniverse. ISBN 978-1450286459.
3. ^ O'Rourke, Ronald (May 1988). "The Tanker War". Proceedings of the USNI. 114 (5): 1023.
4. ^ Boczek 1989, p. 244.
5. Roach, J. Ashley; Greenwood, Christopher J.; Lagoni, Rainer; Meron, Theodor (20–23 April 1988), "Missiles on Target; the Law of Targeting and the Tanker War", Proceedings of the Asil Annual Meeting, 82: 154–169, doi:10.1017/S0272503700072980, JSTOR 25658421, S2CID 159309793
6. ^ Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Iran–Iraq War: 1980–1988. Osprey Publishing. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-84176-371-2.
7. Dudley, William S. (2007), "Navies, Great Powers – United States, 1775 to the Present – The tanker war", in Hattendorf, John J. (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195130751.001.0001, ISBN 9780195307405
8. Leckow 1988, p. 636.
9. ^ Trainor, Bernard E. (14 August 1987). "Gulf Risks: Mines and Suicide Boats". The New York Times.
10. ^ Leckow 1988, p. 637.
11. Leckow 1988, p. 639.
12. Post 1992, p. 191. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPost1992 (help)
13. Phillips, Stephen (20 March 2024). "Revisiting the Tanker War". War on the Rocks.
14. data sieve minimum of 5
15. ^ Herman, Arthur (7 March 1984), "Two cargo ships were hit by Iraqi missiles", United Press International
16. "The Charming (Iraqi Attack) (Hansard, 8 March 1984)". api.parliament.uk. Retrieved 14 September 2024.
17. M.Daly, Thomas. "The Enduring Gulf War". US Naval Institute.
18. "Written Answers [4 MAY, 1984] to Questions" (PDF).
19. ^ Silverstone 1984, 21 (4)
20. ^ Silverstone 1985b, 22 (2)
21. ^ "Iranians Bomb Tanker From India in the Gulf", The New York Times, Associated Press, 13 October 1984
22. "Liquefied Gas Ship Set Ablaze in Gulf", The New York Times, Reuters, 14 October 1984
23. Middleton, Drew (21 October 1984), "Gulf War: Iran's Push is Limited", The New York Times
24. Zatarain 2008, p. 91-92.
25. "Texaco Supertanker Loaded With Iranian Oil Hits Mine : Cargo Leak, None Hurt, Owner Says". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. 10 August 1987. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
26. Phillips, John (10 August 1987). "A U.S.-operated supertanker hit a mine outside the Persian..." United Press International. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
27. Phillips, John (10 August 1987). "U.S.-run tanker hits mine outside Persian Gulf". United Press International. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
28. Zatarain 2008, p. 92.
29. Reed, Jack (15 August 1987). "A mine in the Gulf of Oman sank a..." United Press International. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
30. Phillips, Jason (16 August 1987). "The amphibious assault carrier USS Guadalcanal has arrived off..." United Press International. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
31. ^ Silverstone 1988a, 25 (1)
32. ^ Silverstone 1988b, 25 (2)
33. ^ Silverstone 1988c, 25 (4)
34. ^ Silverstone 1989, 26 (1)

Sources

• Boczek, Boleslaw Adam (1989). "Law of Warfare at Sea and Neutrality:Lessons from the Gulf War". Ocean Development and International Law. 20 (3): 239–271. doi:10.1080/00908328909545892.
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• Silverstone, Paul H. (1985), "Naval Intelligence", Warship International, 22 (3), International Naval Research Organization: 306, JSTOR 44891192
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• Wang, Erik B. (1995). "The Iran-Iraq War Revisited: Some Reflections on the Role of International Law". Canadian Yearbook of International Law. 32.
• Zatarain, Lee Allen (2008). Tanker War: America's First Conflict with Iran, 1987-88. Casemate Publishers. ISBN 9781932033847.

Further reading

• El-Shazly, Nadia El-Sayed (2016), The Gulf Tanker War: Iran and Iraq's Maritime Swordplay, Springer, ISBN 9781349263042
• Navias, Martin S.; Hooton, E. R. (1996), Tanker Wars: Assault on Merchant Shipping During the Iran-Iraq Crisis, 1980-88, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 9781860640322
• Walker, George K. (2000), "The Tanker War, 1980-88: Law and Policy", International Law Studies, 74, U.S. Naval War College

• Iran–Iraq War
• History of the Persian Gulf
• Maritime incidents in 1984
• Maritime incidents in 1985
• Maritime incidents in 1986
• Maritime incidents in 1987
• Maritime incidents in 1988