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{{Short description|Ethnoreligious group and nation}}
{{About|the Jewish people|their religion|Judaism}}
{{Redirect|Jew}} {{Redirect|Jew|the word|Jew (word){{!}}''Jew'' (word)|other uses}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox ethnic group {{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Jews | group = Jews
| native_name = {{lang-he|יהודים}} ({{lang|he-Latn|''Yehudim''}}) | native_name = {{Script/Hebrew|יְהוּדִים{{popdf}}}} ({{lang|he-Latn|Yehudim}})
| native_name_lang = he
| population = '''14.7–17.4 million'''<ref name="Population of Jews" />
| rawimage = ]
| image = Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 063.jpg
| image =
| caption = According to Jewish tradition, ] was the father of the ].
| image_caption = The ], a common symbol of the Jewish people
| region1 = {{flag|Israel}}
| total = '''15.8 million'''<br />'''Enlarged population (includes anyone with a Jewish parent):'''<br />'''20 million'''{{efn|The global core Jewish population was estimated at approximately 15,263,500 in 2022. When including individuals who identify as partly Jewish and anyone with one or two Jewish parents increases the estimate to 20,028,800. Adding individuals with a Jewish background but without Jewish parents, and non-Jewish household members living with Jews, yields an enlarged estimate of 22,720,400.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-33406-1 |title=American Jewish Year Book 2022 |date=2023 |volume=122 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-33406-1|isbn=978-3-031-33405-4 }}</ref>}}
| pop1 = 6,481,182
| total_year = 2022
| ref1 = <ref>{{cite report |date=2016 |title=Population, by Population Group |url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/publications16/yarhon0316/pdf/b1.pdf |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |accessdate=4 May 2016}}</ref>
| total_source = estimate
| total_ref = <ref name="JDB">{{cite report |editor1-last=Dashefsky |editor1-first=Arnold |editor-link1=Arnold Dashefsky |editor2-last=Della-Pergola |editor2-first=Sergio |editor-link2=Sergio Della Pergola |editor3-last=Sheskin |editor3-first=Ira |date=2021 |title=World Jewish Population|url=https://www.jewishdatabank.org/api/download/?studyId=1185&mediaId=bjdb%5c2021_World_Jewish_Population_AJYB_(DellaPergola)_DB_Public.pdf|publisher=]|access-date=4 September 2023}}</ref>
]
| region1 = Israel (including ])
| pop1 = 7,300,000–7,455,200
| ref1 = <ref name="TOI2">https://www.timesofisrael.com/worlds-jewish-population-hits-15-8-million-on-eve-of-rosh-hashanah/</ref>
| region2 = United States
| pop2 = 6,300,000–7,500,000
| ref2 = <ref name="TOI2"/>
| region3 = France
| pop3 = 438,500–550,000
| ref3 = <ref name="TOI2"/>
| region4 = Canada
| pop4 = 400,000–450,000
| ref4 = <ref name="TOI2"/>
| region5 = United Kingdom
| pop5 = 312,000–330,000
| ref5 = <ref name="JDB"/><ref name="TOI">{{cite web | url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/global-jewish-population-hits-15-7-million-ahead-of-new-year-46-of-them-in-israel/amp/ | title=Global Jewish population hits 15.7 million ahead of new year, 46% of them in Israel | website=] }}</ref>
| region6 = Argentina
| pop6 = 171,000–240,000
| ref6 = <ref name="JDB"/><ref name="TOI"/>
| region7 = Russia
| pop7 = 132,000–290,000
| ref7 = <ref name="JDB"/><ref name="TOI"/>
| region8 = Germany
| pop8 = 125,000–175,000
| ref8 = <ref name="JDB"/><ref name="TOI"/>
| region9 = Australia
| pop9 = 117,200–130,000
| ref9 = <ref name="JDB"/><ref name="TOI"/>
| region10 = Brazil
| pop10 = 90,000–120,000
| ref10 = <ref name=":7" /><ref name="TOI"/>
| region11 = South Africa
| pop11 = 51,000–75,000
| ref11 = <ref name="JDB"/>
| region12 = Hungary
| pop12 = 46,500–75,000
| ref12 = <ref name=":7" />
| region13 = Ukraine
| pop13 = 40,000–90,000
| ref13 = <ref name=":7" />
| region14 = Mexico
| pop14 = 40,000–45,000
| ref14 = <ref name=":7" />
| region15 = Netherlands
| pop15 = 29,700–43,000
| ref15 = <ref name=":7" />
| region16 = Belgium
| pop16 = 28,800–35,000
| ref16 = <ref name=":7" />
| region17 = Italy
| pop17 = 27,000–34,000
| ref17 = <ref name=":7" />
| region18 = Switzerland
| pop18 = 18,800–22,000
| ref18 = <ref name=":7" />
| region19 = Uruguay
| pop19 = 16,300–20,000
| ref19 = <ref name=":7" />
| region20 = Chile
| pop20 = 15,800–20,000
| ref20 = <ref name=":7" />
| region21 = Sweden
| pop21 = 14,900–20,000
| ref21 = <ref name=":7" />
| region22 = Turkey
| pop22 = 14,300–17,500
| ref22 = <ref name=":7" />
| region23 = Spain
| pop23 = 12,900–16,000
| ref23 = <ref name=":7" />
| region24 = Austria
| pop24 = 10,300–14,000
| ref24 = <ref name=":7" />
| region25 = Panama
| pop25 = 10,000–11,000
| ref25 = <ref name=":7" />
| languages = {{plainlist|
* '''Predominantly spoken:'''<ref name=Languages>{{cite web|url=http://www.bh.org.il/links.aspx |title=Links |access-date=2 April 2012 |publisher=] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326102214/http://www.bh.org.il/links/jewishlangs.asp |archive-date=26 March 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{hlist|]|]|]|]|]}}
* '''Historical:'''
* {{hlist|]|]|]|]}}
* '''Sacred:'''
* {{hlist|]|]|]}}
}}
| religions = Majority: {{ubl| ] |Minority:<br /> ]<ref>{{Cite news |title=New Poll Shows Atheism on Rise, With Jews Found to Be Least Religious |language=en |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/2012-08-20/ty-article/jews-least-observant-intl-poll-finds/0000017f-e2b6-d7b2-a77f-e3b7be450000 |url-status=live |access-date=25 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719095822/https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/jews-least-observant-int-l-poll-finds-1.5287579 |archive-date=19 July 2018}}</ref>}}
| related-c = {{plainlist|
* ],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Genes, Polymorphisms and the Making of Societies: How Genetic Behavioral Traits Influence Human Cultures |last=Kiaris|first= Hippokratis|publisher=Universal Publishers|year=2012 |isbn=978-1-61233-093-8 |page=21}}</ref><ref name="evolutsioon" /><ref name=DigitalSamaritans>{{Cite book |title=Digital Samaritans: Rhetorical Delivery and Engagement in the Digital Humanities |last=Ridolfo |first=Jim |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-472-07280-4 |page=69}}</ref> ],<ref name="evolutsioon">{{cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Peidong |last2=Lavi |first2=Tal |last3=Kivisild |first3=Toomas |last4=Chou |first4=Vivian |last5=Sengun |first5=Deniz |last6=Gefel |first6=Dov |last7=Shpirer |first7=Issac |last8=Woolf |first8=Eilon |last9=Hillel |first9=Jossi |last10=Feldman |first10=Marcus W. |last11=Oefner |first11=Peter J. |title=Reconstruction of patrilineages and matrilineages of Samaritans and other Israeli populations from Y-Chromosome and mitochondrial DNA sequence Variation |journal=Human Mutation |date=September 2004 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=248–260 |doi=10.1002/humu.20077 |pmid=15300852 |s2cid=1571356 | issn = 1059-7794 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Studies Show Jews' Genetic Similarity|first= Nicholas|last= Wade|date=9 June 2010|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/10/science/10jews.html |work=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nebel |first1=Almut |last2=Filon |first2=Dvora |last3=Weiss |first3=Deborah A. |last4=Weale |first4=Michael |last5=Faerman |first5=Marina |last6=Oppenheim |first6=Ariella |last7=Thomas |first7=Mark G. |title=High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews |journal=Human Genetics |date=December 2000 |volume=107 |issue=6 |pages=630–641 |doi=10.1007/s004390000426 |pmid=11153918 |s2cid=8136092 }}</ref><ref name="sciencedaily">{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/05/000509003653.htm |title=Jews Are the Genetic Brothers of Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=9 May 2000 |access-date=12 April 2013}}</ref> ],<ref name="Abraham 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Atzmon |first1=Gil |last2=Hao |first2=Li |last3=Pe'er |first3=Itsik |last4=Velez |first4=Christopher |last5=Pearlman |first5=Alexander |last6=Palamara |first6=Pier Francesco |last7=Morrow |first7=Bernice |last8=Friedman |first8=Eitan |last9=Oddoux |first9=Carole |last10=Burns |first10=Edward |last11=Ostrer |first11=Harry |title=Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=June 2010 |volume=86 |issue=6 |pages=850–859 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015 |pmid=20560205 |pmc=3032072 }}</ref> and ]
}}
}}
{{Contains special characters|Hebrew}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar}}


The '''Jews''' ({{langx|he|{{Script/Hebr|יְהוּדִים}}}}, {{small|]:}} {{transliteration|he|''Yehudim''}}, {{small|]:}} {{IPA|he|jehuˈdim|}}) or '''Jewish people''' are an ]<ref name="Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group" /> and ]<ref>*{{cite book |author=M. Nicholson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvI8DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |title=International Relations: A Concise Introduction |publisher=NYU Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8147-5822-9 |pages=19–|quote=The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel}}
| region2 = {{flag|United States}}
*{{cite book |author=Jacob Neusner |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju0000neus |title=An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-664-25348-6 |pages=– |url-access=registration|quote=That there is a Jewish nation can hardly be denied after the creation of the State of Israel}}
| pop2 = 5,300,000–6,800,000
*{{cite book |author=Alan Dowty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vL8r4U1FKSQC&pg=PA3 |title=The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface |publisher=University of California Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-520-92706-3 |pages=3–|quote=Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos}}
| ref2 = <ref name="JDB">{{cite report |author=DellaPergola, Sergio |date=2015 |title=World Jewish Population, 2015 |url=http://www.jewishdatabank.org/Studies/downloadFile.cfm?FileID=3394 |publisher=Berman Jewish DataBank |accessdate=4 May 2016}}</ref><ref name="american-jewish-population" />
*{{cite web|url=https://louisville.edu/law/library/special-collections/the-louis-d.-brandeis-collection/the-jewish-problem-how-to-solve-it-by-louis-d.-brandeis|title=The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It|first=Louis|last=Brandeis|author-link=Louis Brandeis|date=25 April 1915|publisher=University of Louisville School of Law|access-date=2 April 2012|quote=Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member}}
*{{cite book|last1=Palmer|first1=Edward Henry|author-link1=Edward Henry Palmer|title=A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishn00palm|access-date=2 April 2012|year= 2002|orig-year=First published 1874|publisher=Gorgias Press|isbn=978-1-931956-69-7|oclc=51578088}}</ref> originating from the ] of the historical kingdoms of ],<ref>*{{cite book |author=Facts On File, Incorporated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA337 |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-2676-0 |pages=337–|quote=The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history}}
*{{Cite book |last=Spielvogel |first=Jackson J. |title=Western Civilization: Volume A: To 1500 |publisher=Wadsworth Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=9780495502883 |pages=36 |quote=The people of Judah survived, eventually becoming known as the Jews and giving their name to Judaism, the religion of Yahweh, the Israelite God.}}
*{{cite book |author=Raymond P. Scheindlin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bfsuicMmrE0C&pg=PA1 |title=A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-513941-9 |pages=1–|quote=Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites}}
*{{Cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric H. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54913803 |title=Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel |publisher=] |year=2004 |isbn=0-472-11313-5 |location=Ann Arbor |pages=33 |oclc=54913803 |quote=Few would seriously challenge the belief that most modern Jews are descended from the ancient Hebrews |author-link=Eric H. Cline}}
*{{cite book |author=Harry Ostrer MD |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RayZR3V1SFwC&pg=PT26 |title=Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-997638-6 |pages=19–22}}</ref> and whose traditional religion is ].<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite web |title=Jew &#124; History, Beliefs, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jew-people |access-date=20 August 2022 |website=Britannica |language=en |quote= any person whose religion is Judaism. In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Bible (Old Testament). |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901033920/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jew-people |archive-date= 1 September 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/jew |title=Jew |publisher=Cambridge Dictionary |quote="a member of a people whose traditional religion is Judaism" |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210706024026/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/jew |archive-date= 6 July 2021 }}<br />{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/jew |title=Jew |publisher=Oxford Dictionary |quote="a member of the people and cultural community whose traditional religion is Judaism and who come from the ancient Hebrew people of Israel; a person who believes in and practises Judaism" |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213075948/https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/jew |archive-date= 13 February 2023 }}<br />{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/jew |title=Jew |publisher=Collins |quote="a person whose religion is Judaism", "a member of the Semitic people who claim descent from the ancient Hebrew people of Israel, are spread throughout the world, and are linked by cultural or religious ties" |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230722022904/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/jew |archive-date= 22 July 2023 }}</ref> Jewish ethnicity, religion, and community are highly interrelated,<ref name="Lederhendler20012">{{cite book |author=Eli Lederhendler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wvahJv83AgC&pg=PA101 |title=Studies in Contemporary Jewry: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-534896-5 |pages=101–|quote=Historically, the religious and ethnic dimensions of Jewish identity have been closely interwoven. In fact, so closely bound are they, that the traditional Jewish lexicon hardly distinguishes between the two concepts. Jewish religious practice, by definition, was observed exclusively by the Jewish people, and notions of Jewish peoplehood, nation, and community were suffused with faith in the Jewish God, the practice of Jewish (religious) law and the study of ancient religious texts}}</ref><ref name="Yee20052">{{cite book |author=Tet-Lim N. Yee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4OwXhMOn5cC&pg=PA102 |title=Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-139-44411-8 |pages=102–|quote=This identification in the Jewish attitude between the ethnic group and religious identity is so close that the reception into this religion of members not belonging to its ethnic group has become impossible.}}</ref> as Judaism is an ],<ref name="Nicholson20022">{{cite book |author=M. Nicholson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvI8DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |title=International Relations: A Concise Introduction |publisher=NYU Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8147-5822-9 |pages=19–|quote=The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel}}</ref><ref name="Dowty19982">{{cite book |author=Alan Dowty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vL8r4U1FKSQC&pg=PA3 |title=The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface |publisher=University of California Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-520-92706-3 |pages=3–|quote=Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos}}</ref> but not all ethnic Jews practice Judaism.<ref name="KrauszTulea2">{{cite book |author1=Ernest Krausz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnxv-Mlz0JIC&pg=PA90 |title=Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; &#91;... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997&#93; |author2=Gitta Tulea |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-4128-2689-1 |pages=90–|quote=A person born Jewish who refutes Judaism may continue to assert a Jewish identity, and if he or she does not convert to another religion, even religious Jews will recognize the person as a Jew}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=Institute for Jewish Policy Research|url=https://www.jpr.org.uk/insights/belonging-without-believing-british-jewish-identity-and-god|title=Belonging without believing: British Jewish identity and God|date=20 March 2024|quote=Only a third of Jews living in the UK have faith in God, as described in the Bible, yet 'non-believers' make up more than half of paid-up synagogue memberships, according to data from the JPR National Jewish Identity Survey}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=]|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2021/05/13/jews-in-u-s-are-far-less-religious-than-christians-and-americans-overall-at-least-by-traditional-measures|title=Jews in U.S. are far less religious than Christians and Americans overall, at least by traditional measures|date=13 May 2021}}</ref> Despite this, religious Jews regard ] as Jews.<ref name="KrauszTulea2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC - Religions - Judaism: Converting to Judaism |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/beliefs/conversion.shtml |access-date=29 September 2023 |website=] |language=en-GB}}</ref>


The Israelites emerged from within the ] to establish the ] kingdoms of Israel and Judah.<ref name="John Day pp. 47">] (2005), ''In Search of Pre-Exilic Israel'', Bloomsbury Publishing, pp. 47.5 'In this sense, the emergence of ancient Israel is viewed not as the cause of the demise of Canaanite culture but as its upshot'.</ref> Judaism emerged from the Israelite religion of ] by the late 6th century BCE,<ref name="MINDELL2009">{{cite book|author=David P Mindell|title=The Evolving World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kA6eaz7hsC&pg=PA224 |year= 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-04108-0|page=224}}</ref> with a theology considered by religious Jews to be the expression of a ] with ] established with the Israelites, their ancestors.<ref name="Knowledge Resources: Judaism">{{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/traditions/judaism |title=Knowledge Resources: Judaism |publisher=] |access-date=22 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827210045/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/traditions/judaism |archive-date=27 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The ] of ] following ] destruction,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Albertz|first=Rainer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&pg=PA45|title=Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E.|date=2003|publisher=Society of Biblical Lit|isbn=978-1-58983-055-4|language=en|pages=45ff|quote=Since the exilic era constitutes a gaping hole in the historical narrative of the Bible, historical reconstruction of this era faces almost insurmountable difficulties. Like the premonarchic period and the late Persian period, the exilic period, though set in the bright light of Ancient Near Eastern history, remains historically obscure. Since there are very few Israelite sources, the only recourse is to try to cast some light on this darkness from the history of the surrounding empires under whose dominion Israel came in this period.}}</ref> the movement of Jewish groups around the Mediterranean in the ], and subsequent periods of conflict and violent dispersion, such as the ], gave rise to the ]. The Jewish diaspora is a wide dispersion of Jewish communities across the world that have maintained their sense of ], ] and ].<ref>* {{cite book|author=Marvin Perry|title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC|year=2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-111-83720-4|page=87}}
| region3 = {{flag|France}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Botticini |first1=Maristella |last2=Eckstein |first2=Zvi |title=From Farmers to Merchants, Conversions and Diaspora: Human Capital and Jewish History |journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |date=1 September 2007 |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=885–926 |doi=10.1162/JEEA.2007.5.5.885 }} "The death toll of the Great Revolt against the Roman empire amounted to about 600,000 Jews, whereas the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 caused the death of about 500,000 Jews. Massacres account for roughly 40 percent of the decrease of the Jewish population in Palestine. Moreover, some Jews migrated to Babylon after these revolts because of the worse economic conditions. After accounting for massacres and migrations, there is an additional 30 to 40 percent of the decrease in the Jewish population in Palestine (about 1–1.3 million Jews) to be explained" (p. 19).
| pop3 = 467,500
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011234750/https://nes.berkeley.edu/Web_Boyarin/BoyarinArticles/69%20Diaspora%20(1993).pdf |date=11 October 2020 }} "...it is crucial to recognize that the Jewish conception of the Land of Israel is similar to the discourse of the Land of many (if not nearly all) "indigenous" peoples of the world. Somehow the Jews have managed to retain a sense of being rooted somewhere in the world through twenty centuries of exile from that someplace (organic metaphors are not out of place in this discourse, for they are used within the tradition itself). It is profoundly disturbing to hear Jewish attachment to the Land decried as regressive in the same discursive situations in which the attachment of native Americans or Australians to their particular rocks, trees, and deserts is celebrated as an organic connection to the Earth that "we" have lost" p. 714.
| ref3 = <ref name="JDB" />
* "...although the word Babylon often connotes captivity and oppression, a rereading of the Babylonian period of exile can thus be shown to demonstrate the development of a new creative energy in a challenging, pluralistic context outside the natal homeland. When the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in AD 70, it was Babylon that remained as the nerve- and brain-centre for Jewish life and thought...the crushing of the revolt of the Judaeans against the Romans and the destruction of the Second Temple by the Roman general Titus in AD 70 precisely confirmed the catastrophic tradition. Once again, Jews had been unable to sustain a national homeland and were scattered to the far corners of the world" (p. 24).
* : Paul Johnson analyzes Cassius Dio's ''Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX'' para. 13–14 (Dio's passage cited separately) among other sources: "Even if Dio's figures are somewhat exaggerated, the casualties amongst the population and the destruction inflicted on the country would have been considerable. According to Jerome, many Jews were also sold into slavery, so many, indeed, that the price of Jewish slaves at the slave market in Hebron sank drastically to a level no greater than that for a horse. The economic structure of the country was largely destroyed. The entire spiritual and economic life of the Palestinian Jews moved to Galilee. Jerusalem was now turned into a Roman colony with the official name ''Colonia Aelia Capitolina'' (''Aelia'' after Hadrian's family name: P. Aelius Hadrianus; ''Capitolina'' after Jupiter Capitolinus). The Jews were forbidden on pain of death to set foot in the new Roman city. Aelia thus became a completely pagan city, no doubt with the corresponding public buildings and temples... We can...be certain that a statue of Hadrian was erected in the centre of Aelia, and this was tantamount in itself to a desecration of Jewish Jerusalem." p. 159.
* : "13 At first the Romans took no account of them. Soon, however, all Judaea had been stirred up, and the Jews everywhere were showing signs of disturbance, were gathering together, and giving evidence of great hostility to the Romans, partly by secret and partly by overt acts; 2 many outside nations, too, were joining them through eagerness for gain, and the whole earth, one might almost say, was being stirred up over the matter. Then, indeed, Hadrian sent against them his best generals. First of these was Julius Severus, who was dispatched from Britain, where he was governor, against the Jews. 3 Severus did not venture to attack his opponents in the open at any one point, in view of their numbers and their desperation, but by intercepting small groups, thanks to the number of his soldiers and his under-officers, and by depriving them of food and shutting them up, he was able, rather slowly, to be sure, but with comparatively little danger, to crush, exhaust and exterminate them. Very few of them in fact survived. Fifty of their most important outposts and nine hundred and eighty-five of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. Five hundred and eighty thousand men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out. 2 Thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate, a result of which the people had had forewarning before the war. For the tomb of Solomon, which the Jews regard as an object of veneration, fell to pieces of itself and collapsed, and many wolves and hyenas rushed howling into their cities. 3 Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore Hadrian in writing to the senate did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors, 'If you and our children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health'" (para. 13–14).
* {{cite journal |last1=Safran |first1=William |title=The Jewish Diaspora in a Comparative and Theoretical Perspective |journal=Israel Studies |date=2005 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=36–60 |doi=10.2979/ISR.2005.10.1.36 |id={{Project MUSE|180371}} |jstor=30245753 |s2cid=144379115 }} "...diaspora referred to a very specific case—that of the exile of the Jews from the Holy Land and their dispersal throughout several parts of the globe. Diaspora connoted deracination, legal disabilities, oppression, and an often painful adjustment to a hostland whose hospitality was unreliable and ephemeral. It also connoted the existence on foreign soil of an expatriate community that considered its presence to be transitory. Meanwhile, it developed a set of institutions, social patterns, and ethnonational and/or religious symbols that held it together. These included the language, religion, values, social norms, and narratives of the homeland. Gradually, this community adjusted to the hostland environment and became itself a center of cultural creation. All the while, however, it continued to cultivate the idea of return to the homeland." (p. 36).
* {{cite journal |last1=Sheffer |first1=Gabriel |title=Is the Jewish Diaspora Unique? Reflections on the Diaspora's Current Situation |journal=Israel Studies |date=2005 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1–35 |doi=10.2979/ISR.2005.10.1.1 |id={{Project MUSE|180374}} |jstor=30245752 |s2cid=143958201 }} "...the Jewish nation, which from its very earliest days believed and claimed that it was the "chosen people," and hence unique. This attitude has further been buttressed by the equally traditional view, which is held not only by the Jews themselves, about the exceptional historical age of this diaspora, its singular traumatic experiences its singular ability to survive pogroms, exiles, and Holocaust, as well as its "special relations" with its ancient homeland, culminating in 1948 with the nation-state that the Jewish nation has established there... First, like many other members of established diasporas, the vast majority of Jews no longer regard themselves as being in ''Galut'' in their host countries....Perceptually, as well as actually, Jews permanently reside in host countries of their own free will, as a result of inertia, or as a result of problematic conditions prevailing in other hostlands, or in Israel. It means that the basic perception of many Jews about their existential situation in their hostlands has changed. Consequently, there is both a much greater self- and collective-legitimatization to refrain from making serious plans concerning "return" or actually "making Aliyah" to Israel. This is one of the results of their wider, yet still rather problematic and sometimes painful acceptance by the societies and political systems in their host countries. It means that they, and to an extent their hosts, do not regard Jewish life within the framework of diasporic formations in these hostlands as something that they should be ashamed of, hide from others, or alter by returning to the old homeland" (p. 4).
* {{Cite book|title = The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BjtWLZhhMoYC|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1984|isbn = 978-0-521-77248-8|first1 = William David|last1 = Davies|first2 = Louis|last2 = Finkelstein|first3 = Steven T.|last3 = Katz|quote = Although Dio's figure of 985 as the number of villages destroyed during the war seems hyperbolic, all Judaean villages, without exception, excavated thus far were razed following the Bar Kochba Revolt. This evidence supports the impression of total regional destruction following the war. Historical sources note the vast number of captives sold into slavery in Palestine and shipped abroad. ... The Judaean Jewish community never recovered from the Bar Kochba war. In its wake, Jews no longer formed the majority in Palestine, and the Jewish center moved to the Galilee. Jews were also subjected to a series of religious edicts promulgated by Hadrian that were designed to uproot the nationalistic elements with the Judaean Jewish community, these proclamations remained in effect until Hadrian's death in 138. An additional, more lasting punitive measure taken by the Romans involved expunging Judaea from the provincial name, changing it from Provincia Judaea to Provincia Syria Palestina. Although such name changes occurred elsewhere, never before or after was a nation's name expunged as the result of rebellion.}}
* Dalit Rom-Shiloni, '''', A&C Black, 2013 p. xv n.3: 'it is argued that biblical texts of the Neo-Babylonian and the early Persian periods show a fierce adversarial relationship(s) between the Judean groups. We find no expressions of sympathy to the deported community for its dislocation, no empathic expressions towards the People Who Remained under Babylonian subjugation in Judah. The opposite is apparent: hostile, denigrating, and denunciating language characterizes the relationships between resident and exiled Judeans throughout the sixth and fifth centuries.' (p. xvii)</ref>


In the following millennia, Jewish diaspora communities ] into three major ] according to where their ancestors settled: the '']'' (] and ]), the '']'' (]), and the '']'' (] and ]).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Eban|first=Abba Solomon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&pg=PA87|title=Heritage: Civilization and the Jews|date=1984|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-671-44103-6|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Dosick">Dosick (2007), pp. 59, 60.</ref> While these three major divisions account for most of the world's Jews, there are other smaller Jewish groups outside of the three.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews - Judaism 101 (JewFAQ) |url=https://www.jewfaq.org/ashkenazic_and_sephardic |access-date=12 December 2023 |website=www.jewfaq.org |language=en}}</ref> Prior to ], the ] reached a peak of 16.7&nbsp;million,<ref name="JVIL2010">{{cite web|url = https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html|title = The Jewish Population of the World (2014)|work = ]|access-date = 30 June 2015}}, based on {{cite book|title = American Jewish Year Book|publisher = ]|url = http://www.ajcarchives.org/main.php?GroupingId=10142}}</ref> representing around 0.7% of the world's population at that time. During World War&nbsp;II, approximately 6&nbsp;million Jews throughout ] were systematically murdered by ] in a genocide known as ].<ref>{{cite web|title = The Holocaust|url = http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/the-holocaust|website = HISTORY.com|access-date = 10 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Mitchell |first1=Travis |title=What Americans Know About the Holocaust |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2020/01/22/what-americans-know-about-the-holocaust/ |work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |access-date=16 January 2023 |date=22 January 2020}}</ref> Since then, the population has slowly risen again, and {{as of|2021|lc=y}}, was estimated to be at 15.2&nbsp;million by the demographer ]<ref name="JDB" /> or less than 0.2% of the total world population in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4291987,00.html|title= Jews make up only 0.2% of mankind|newspaper=]|date=October 2012|last1= Silverman|first1= Anav}}</ref>{{efn|The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to issues with census methodology, disputes among proponents of '']'', secular, political, and ancestral identification factors regarding ] may affect the figure considerably depending on the source.<ref name="Pfeffer">{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/903585.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319024731/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/903585.html |archive-date=19 March 2009 |title=Jewish Agency: 13.2 million Jews worldwide on eve of Rosh Hashanah, 5768 |access-date=24 January 2009 |last=Pfeffer |first=Anshel |date=12 September 2007 |newspaper=Haaretz |url-status=dead}}</ref>}} Today, over 85% of Jews live in ] or the ]. Israel, whose population is 73.9% Jewish, is the only country where Jews comprise more than 2.5% of the population.<ref name="JDB" />
| region4 = {{flag|Canada}}
| pop4 = 386,000
| ref4 = <ref name="JDB" />


Jews have significantly influenced and contributed to the development and growth of ] in many fields, both historically and in modern times, including in ],<ref name="Daly2013"/> ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/maimonid/|title=Maimonides – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|work=utm.edu|access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sekine |first1=Seizo |title=A Comparative Study of the Origins of Ethical Thought: Hellenism and Hebraism |date=20 January 2005 |publisher=Sheed & Ward |isbn=978-1-4616-7459-7 }}{{page needed|date=October 2020}}</ref> ],<ref name="Daly2013">{{cite book|author=Jonathan Daly|title=The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aZPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|year= 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1851-6|pages=21–}}"Upon the foundation of Judaism, two civilizations centered on monotheistic religion emerged, Christianity and Islam. To these civilizations, the Jews added a leaven of astonishing creativity in business, medicine, letters, science, the arts, and a variety of other leadership roles."</ref> ],<ref name="Daly2013"/> ],<ref name="Daly2013"/> ], ], ], ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dctheatrescene.com/2013/06/25/broadway-musicals-a-jewish-legacy/|title=Broadway Musicals: A Jewish Legacy|work=DC Theatre Scene}}</ref> ], ],<ref name="Daly2013" /> ], ],<ref name="Rabin">{{Cite news|last=Rabin|first=Roni Caryn|date=14 May 2012|title=Tracing the Path of Jewish Medical Pioneers|language=en-US|newspaper=]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/15/health/exhibition-traces-the-emergence-of-jews-as-medical-innovators.html|access-date=20 August 2022|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="Shatzmiller, Joseph 1995">Shatzmiller, Joseph. Doctors to Princes and Paupers: Jews, Medicine, and Medieval Society. Berkeley: U of California, 1995. Print.</ref> and ]. Jews ],<ref name="Dimont2004">{{cite book|author=]|title=Jews, God, and History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lm5U0YSPmBUC&pg=PT102|year= 2004|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-101-14225-7|pages=102–}} "During the subsequent five hundred years, under Persian, Greek and Roman domination, the Jews wrote, revised, admitted and canonized all the books now comprising the Jewish Old Testament"</ref><ref name="Galambush2011">{{cite book|author=Julie Galambush|title=The Reluctant Parting: How the New Testament's Jewish Writers Created a Christian Book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=52nkWb8GNMAC&pg=PA3|year=2011|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-210475-5|pages=3–}}"The fact that Jesus and his followers who wrote the New Testament were first-century Jews, then, produces as many questions as it does answers concerning their experiences, beliefs, and practices"</ref> founded ],<ref name="BarclaySweet1996">{{cite book|author1=John M. G. Barclay|author2=John Philip McMurdo Sweet|title=Early Christian Thought in Its Jewish Context|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DN0t06-wVvoC&pg=PA20|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-46285-3|pages=20–}}"Early Christianity began as a Jewish movement in first-century Palestine"</ref> and had ].<ref name="Paterson2009">{{cite book|author=Dr. Andrea C. Paterson|title=Three Monotheistic Faiths – Judaism, Christianity, Islam: An Analysis and Brief History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tuuys4HxSzcC&pg=PA41|year=2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4520-3049-4|pages=41–}} "Judaism also contributed to the religion of Islam for Islam derives its ideas of holy text, the Qur'an, ultimately from Judaism. The dietary and legal codes of Islam are based on those of Judaism. The basic design of the mosque, the Islamic house of worship, comes from that of the early synagogues. The communal prayer services of Islam and their devotional routines resembles those of Judaism."</ref> In these ways, Jews have also played a significant role in the development of ].<ref name="Cambridge University Historical Series">Cambridge University Historical Series, ''An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects'', p. 40: "Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of Western nations since the Christian era."</ref><ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web|title=Judaism – The Judaic tradition &#124; Britannica|website=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition|access-date=20 August 2022|language=en|quote=Judaism has played a significant role in the development of Western culture because of its unique relationship with Christianity, the dominant religious force in the West}}</ref>
| region5 = {{nowrap|{{flag|United Kingdom}}}}
| pop5 = 290,000
| ref5 = <ref name="JDB" />


== Name and etymology ==
| region6 = {{flag|Russia}}
{{main|Jew (word)}}
| pop6 = 183,000
{{main list|List of Jewish ethnonyms}}
| ref6 = <ref name="JDB" />
The term "Jew" is derived from the ] word {{lang|he|יְהוּדִי}} {{transliteration|he|Yehudi}}, with the ] {{lang|he|יְהוּדִים}} {{transliteration|he|Yehudim}}.<ref name="EJ253">{{cite EJ|last=Grintz|first=Yehoshua M.|title=Jew|volume=11|page=253}}</ref> ]s in other ]s include the ] {{lang|lad|ג׳ודיו}} {{transliteration|lad|Djudio}} (plural {{lang|lad|ג׳ודיוס}}, {{transliteration|lad|Djudios}}) and the ] {{lang|yi|ייִד}} {{transliteration|yi|Yid}} (plural {{lang|yi|ייִדן}} {{transliteration|yi|Yidn}}). Originally, in ancient times, ''Yehudi'' (Jew)<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite web |date=2024-07-03 |title=Jew {{!}} History, Beliefs, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jew-people |access-date=2024-07-06 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> was used to describe the inhabitants of the Israelite ].<ref>Cf. ]'s ''Dictionary of the Targumim, Talmud Babli, Talmud Yerushalmi and Midrashic Literature'', and the source he used: ] 13a:2 (Talmud).</ref> It is also used to distinguish their descendants from the ]s and the ].<ref name=":4">Amy-Jill Levine. ''The Misunderstood Jew: The Church and the Scandal of the Jewish Jesus''. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2006, page 162</ref> According to the ], these inhabitants predominately descend from the ] from ], the fourth son of ].<ref name=":0">"Jew", ''Oxford English Dictionary''.</ref> Together the tribe of Judah and the ] made up the Kingdom of Judah.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>


Though Genesis 29:35 and 49:8 connect "Judah" with the verb {{transliteration|he|yada}}, meaning "praise", scholars generally agree that "Judah" most likely derives from the name of a ]ine geographic region dominated by gorges and ravines.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pcAkKMECPKIC&pg=PA483 |title=Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament |publisher=William B. Eerdmans |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-8028-2329-8 |editor1-last=Botterweck |editor1-first=G. Johannes |editor1-link=G. Johannes Botterweck |volume=V |location=Grand Rapids, Mich. |pages=483–84 |translator-last=Green |translator-first=David E. |editor2-last=Ringgren |editor2-first=Helmer |editor2-link=Helmer Ringgren}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Julia Phillips Berger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zese2C-fDTEC&q=when+was+the+term+jew+first+used&pg=PA41 |title=Teaching Jewish History |author2=Sue Parker Gerson |publisher=Behrman House, Inc |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-86705-183-4 |page=41}}</ref> In ancient times, Jewish people as a whole were called Hebrews or Israelites until the ]. After the Exile, the term ''Yehudi'' (Jew) was used for all followers of Judaism because the survivors of the Exile (who were the former residents of the Kingdom of Judah) were the only Israelites that had kept their distinct identity as the ] from the ] had ] and assimilated into other populations.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The gradual ]ic shift from "]" to "Jews", regardless of their descent from Judah, although not contained in the ], is made explicit in the ] (4th century BCE) of the ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chouraqui |first=André |url=http://archive.org/details/peoplefaith00andr |title=The people and the faith of the Bible |date=1975 |publisher=Amherst : University of Massachusetts Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-87023-172-8 |page=43}}</ref> Some modern scholars disagree with the conflation, based on the works of ], ] and ].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Staples |first=Jason A. |date=2021 |title=The Idea of Israel in Second Temple Judaism: A New Theory of People, Exile, and Israelite Identity |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108906524 |journal=Cambridge University Press |pages=25–53 |doi=10.1017/9781108906524 |isbn=9781108906524 |s2cid=235573883 |via=Cambridge Core}}</ref>
| region7 = {{flag|Argentina}}
| pop7 = 181,000
| ref7 = <ref name="JDB" />


The English word "Jew" is a derivation of ] ''{{lang|enm|Gyw, Iewe}}''. The latter was loaned from the ] ''{{lang|fro|giu}}'', which itself evolved from the earlier ''{{lang|fro|juieu}}'', which in turn derived from ''{{lang|fro|judieu/iudieu}}'' which through ] had dropped the letter "d" from the ] ''Iudaeus'', which, like the New Testament ] term '']'', meant both "Jew" and "]" / "of ]".<ref>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Facts On File Inc., Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. 336</ref> The Greek term was a loan from ] ''{{transliteration|arc|*yahūdāy}}'', corresponding to Hebrew {{lang|he|יְהוּדִי}} {{transliteration|he|Yehudi}}.<ref name=":0" />
| region8 = {{flag|Germany}}
| pop8 = 117,500
| ref8 = <ref name="JDB" />


Some scholars prefer translating ''Ioudaios'' as "Judean" in the Bible since it is more precise, denotes the community's origins and prevents readers from engaging in antisemitic ].<ref>Adele Reinhartz, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822181415/http://marginalia.lareviewofbooks.org/vanishing-jews-antiquity-adele-reinhartz/|date=22 August 2017}} "Marginalia", ''L.A. Review of Books'', 24 June 2014.</ref><ref>Danker, Frederick W. ''"Ioudaios"'', in ''A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature.'' third edition University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|978-0226039336}}</ref> Others disagree, believing that it erases the Jewish identity of Biblical characters such as ].<ref name=":4" /> Daniel R. Schwartz distinguishes "Judean" and "Jew". Here, "Judean" refers to the inhabitants of Judea, which encompassed southern ]. Meanwhile, "Jew" refers to the descendants of Israelites that adhere to ]. Converts are included in the definition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Daniel R. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt1287s34 |title=Judeans and Jews: Four Faces of Dichotomy in Ancient Jewish History |date=2014 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1442648395 |pages=3–10|jstor=10.3138/j.ctt1287s34 }}</ref> But ] argues that "Judean" should include believers of the Judean God and allies of the Judean state.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J.D. |title=The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties |date=2001 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520226937}}</ref> Troy W. Martin similarly argues that biblical Jewishness is ] but instead, is based on adherence to 'covenantal circumcision' ({{Bibleverse|Genesis|17:9-14}}).<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |last=Martin |first=Troy W. |date=2003 |title=The Covenant of Circumcision (Genesis 17:9-14) and the Situational Antitheses in Galatians 3:28 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3268093 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=122 |issue=1 |pages=111–125 |doi=10.2307/3268093 |jstor=3268093 }}</ref>
| region9 = {{flag|Australia}}
| pop9 = 112,800
| ref9 = <ref name="JDB" />


The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., يَهُودِيّ ''yahūdī'' (sg.), ''al-yahūd'' (pl.), in ], "Jude" in ], "judeu" in ], "Juif" (m.)/"Juive" (f.) in ], "jøde" in ] and ], "judío/a" in ], "jood" in ], "żyd" in ] etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jew, e.g., in ] (''Ebreo''), in ] ("Ebri/Ebrani" ({{langx|fa|عبری/عبرانی}})) and ] (''Еврей, Yevrey'').<ref>{{cite book |last=Falk |first=Avner |author-link=Avner Falk |title=A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press |year=1996 |isbn=0-8386-3660-8 |location=Madison, N.J. |page=131}}</ref> The German word "Jude" is pronounced {{IPA|de|ˈjuːdə|}}, the corresponding ] "jüdisch" {{IPA|de|ˈjyːdɪʃ|}} (Jewish) is the origin of the word "Yiddish".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Yiddish |encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster |location=Springfield, Massachusetts |url=https://archive.org/details/merriamwebstersc00merr_6/page/1453 |edition=11th |page= |isbn=0-87779-809-5}}</ref>
| region10 = {{flag|Brazil}}
| pop10 = 94,500
| ref10 = <ref name="JDB" />


According to '']'', fourth edition (2000),
| region11 = {{flag|South Africa}}
<blockquote>It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun ''Jew'', in phrases such as ''Jew lawyer'' or ''Jew ethics'', is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts ''Jewish'' is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of ''Jew'' as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as ''There are now several Jews on the council'', which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like ''Jewish people'' or ''persons of Jewish background'' may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun.<ref>{{cite book|title=The American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style|at=Jew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xb6ie6PqYhwC&pg=PA269|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|year=2005|isbn=978-0-618-60499-9|editor1-last=Kleinedler|editor1-first=Steven|editor2-last=Spitz|editor2-first=Susan|display-editors=etal}}</ref></blockquote>
| pop11 = 69,800
| ref11 = <ref name="JDB" />


== Identity ==
| region12 = {{flag|Ukraine}}
{{main|Who is a Jew?|Jewish identity}}
| pop12 = 60,000
]]]
| ref12 = <ref name="JDB" />
] shares some of the characteristics of a ],<ref name="Nicholson2002">{{cite book|author=M. Nicholson|title=International Relations: A Concise Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvI8DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|year=2002|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-5822-9|pages=19–}} "The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel"</ref><ref name="Neusner1991">{{cite book|author=Jacob Neusner|title=An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju0000neus|url-access=registration|year=1991|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-25348-6|pages=–}} "That there is a Jewish nation can hardly be denied after the creation of the State of Israel"</ref><ref name="Dowty1998">{{cite book|author=Alan Dowty|title=The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vL8r4U1FKSQC&pg=PA3|year=1998|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92706-3|pages=3–}} "Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos"</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=https://louisville.edu/law/library/special-collections/the-louis-d.-brandeis-collection/the-jewish-problem-how-to-solve-it-by-louis-d.-brandeis|title=The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It|first=Louis|last=Brandeis|author-link=Louis Brandeis|date=25 April 1915|publisher=University of Louisville School of Law|access-date=2 April 2012|quote=Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book|last1=Palmer|first1=Edward Henry|author-link1=Edward Henry Palmer|title=A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishn00palm|access-date=2 April 2012|year= 2002|orig-year=First published 1874|publisher=Gorgias Press|isbn=978-1-931956-69-7|oclc=51578088}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/materials/jewish_nationality.pdf|title=How I Became a Zionist|first=Albert|last=Einstein|author-link=Albert Einstein|work=]|quote=The Jewish nation is a living fact|date=21 June 1921|publisher=]|access-date=5 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105012335/http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/materials/jewish_nationality.pdf|archive-date=5 November 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> an ],<ref name="Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group" /> a ], and a ],<ref name="GordisHeller2012">{{cite book|author1=David M. Gordis|author2=Zachary I. Heller|title=Jewish Secularity: The Search for Roots and the Challenges of Relevant Meaning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QWrSy8Ckd5UC&pg=PA1|year=2012|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=978-0-7618-5793-8|pages=1–}}: "Judaism is a culture and a civilization which embraces the secular as well"</ref><ref name="Kunin2000">{{cite book|author=Seth Daniel Kunin|title=Themes and Issues in Judaism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=St_TAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year= 2000|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-304-33758-3|pages=1–}}: Although culture - and Judaism is a culture (or cultures) as well as religion - can be subdivided into different analytical categories..."</ref><ref name="Mendes-Flohr1991">{{cite book|author=Paul R. Mendes-Flohr|title=Divided Passions: Jewish Intellectuals and the Experience of Modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VBuFygk2C-AC&pg=PA421|year=1991|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=0-8143-2030-9|pages=421–}}: "Although Judaism is a culture - or rather has a culture - it is eminently more than a culture"</ref> making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/whojew1.html|title=Who is a Jew?|access-date=6 October 2007|last=Weiner|first=Rebecca|year=2007|encyclopedia=]}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} Generally, in modern secular usage, Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly ]), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally ] and therefore are followers of the religion.<ref>{{cite book|title=World Religions: An Introduction for Students|last=Fowler|first=Jeaneane D.|year=1997|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=1-898723-48-6|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/worldreligionsin0000unse/page/7}}</ref>


Historical definitions of ] have traditionally been based on '']'' definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. These definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the ] into the ], around 200&nbsp;]. Interpretations by Jewish sages of sections of the Tanakh – such as {{bibleverse|Deuteronomy|7:1–5}}, which forbade intermarriage between their ] and seven non-Israelite nations: "for that would turn away your children from following me, to serve other gods" <ref name="John Day pp. 47"/>{{Failed verification|date=July 2022}} – are used as a warning against ] between Jews and gentiles. {{bibleverse|Leviticus|24:10}} says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an ] man is "of the community of Israel." This is complemented by {{bibleverse|Ezra|10:2–3}}, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their ] wives and their children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-11.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19961018024300/http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-11.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 October 1996|title=What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?|access-date=9 January 2009|date=4 September 2003|publisher=Shamash.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318 |title=What is the source of the law that a child is Jewish only if its mother is Jewish? |access-date=9 January 2009 |publisher=Torah.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224205847/http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318 |archive-date=24 December 2008}}</ref> A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period.<ref name="Klein2016" /> Another argument is that the rabbis changed the law of patrilineal descent to matrilineal descent due to the widespread rape of Jewish women by Roman soldiers.<ref name="Schott2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6iFx-wHhMJMC&pg=PA67|title=Birth, Death, and Femininity: Philosophies of Embodiment|author=Robin May Schott|year=2010|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-00482-6|pages=67–}}</ref> Since the anti-religious '']'' movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, ''halakhic'' interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.<ref>Dosick (2007), pp. 56–57.</ref>
| region13 = {{flag|Hungary}}
| pop13 = 47,700
| ref13 = <ref name="JDB" />


According to historian ], the status of the offspring of mixed marriages was determined ] in the Bible. He brings two likely explanations for the change in ] times: first, the Mishnah may have been applying the same logic to mixed marriages as it had applied to other mixtures ('']''). Thus, a mixed marriage is forbidden as is the union of a ] and a ], and in both unions the offspring are judged matrilineally.<ref name="J.D. Cohen">{{cite book|author=Shaye J.D. Cohen|year=1999|title=The Beginnings of Jewishness|publisher=U. California Press|pages=305–06|isbn=0-585-24643-2}}</ref> Second, the ] may have been influenced by ], which dictated that when a parent could not contract a legal marriage, ].<ref name="J.D. Cohen" /> Rabbi Rivon Krygier follows a similar reasoning, arguing that Jewish descent had formerly passed through the patrilineal descent and the law of matrilineal descent had its roots in the Roman legal system.<ref name="Klein2016">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0BC_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6|title=Lost Jews: The Struggle for Identity Today|author=Emma Klein|year=2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-349-24319-8|pages=6–}}</ref>
| region14 = {{flag|Mexico}}
| pop14 = 40,000
| ref14 = <ref name="JDB" />


== Origins ==
| region15 = {{flag|Netherlands}}
{{further|Canaan|Israelites| Yahwism|Origins of Judaism|History of ancient Israel and Judah}}
| pop15 = 29,900
]''. The painting is from the tomb of a 12th dynasty official ] at ], and dated to c. 1900&nbsp;BCE. Their nearest Biblical contemporaries were the earliest of Hebrews, such as ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mieroop |first1=Marc Van De |title=A History of Ancient Egypt |date=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-6070-4 |page=131 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JADDYAZ9GIIC&pg=PA131 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bard |first1=Kathryn A. |author-link=Kathryn A. Bard |title=An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-89611-2 |page=188 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lFscBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="archaeology.org">{{cite journal |last1=Curry |first1=Andrew |title=The Rulers of Foreign Lands |journal= ] |date=2018 |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/309-1809/features/6855-egypt-hyksos-foreign-dynasty}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kamrin |first1=Janice |title=The Aamu of Shu in the Tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hassan |journal=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections |date=2009 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=22–36 |url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/jaei/article/view/28 |s2cid=199601200 }}</ref>]]
| ref15 = <ref name="JDB" />
], tenth ] of the ], on the ] of ], 841–840 BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kuan |first1=Jeffrey Kah-Jin |title=Neo-Assyrian Historical Inscriptions and Syria-Palestine: Israelite/Judean-Tyrian-Damascene Political and Commercial Relations in the Ninth-Eighth Centuries BCE |date=2016 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-4982-8143-0 |pages=64–66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMOqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 |language=en}}</ref> This is "the only portrayal we have in ancient Near Eastern art of an Israelite or Judaean monarch".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Ada |last2=Kangas |first2=Steven E. |title=Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II: A Cultural Biography |date=2010 |publisher=UPNE |isbn=978-1-58465-817-7 |page=127 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uRKU0YXBWtgC&pg=PA127 |language=en}}</ref>]]


The prehistory and ethnogenesis of the Jews are closely intertwined with archaeology, biology, historical textual records, mythology, and religious literature. The ethnic stock to which Jews originally trace their ancestry was a confederation of Iron Age ]-speaking tribes known as the ] that inhabited a part of ] during the ].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People |last=Ostrer |first=Harry |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-537961-7 |publication-date=8 May 2012}}</ref> Modern Jews are named after and also descended from the southern Israelite ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Killebrew|first=Ann E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC|title=Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanite|date=October 2005|publisher=Society of Biblical Lit|isbn=978-1-58983-097-4|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Schama2014">{{cite book |last=Schama |first=Simon |author-link=Simon Schama |title=The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words 1000 BC–1492 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sHIpAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-233944-7}}</ref><ref>* "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves the descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament."
| region16 = {{flag|Belgium}}
* "The Jewish people as a whole, initially called Hebrews (ʿIvrim), were known as Israelites (Yisreʾelim) from the time of their entrance into the Holy Land to the end of the Babylonian Exile (538&nbsp;BC)."
| pop16 = 29,800
at </ref><ref name="Ostrer2012">{{cite book |last=Ostrer |first=Harry |title=Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xIloAgAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-970205-3}}</ref><ref name="Brenner2010">{{cite book |last=Brenner |first=Michael |title=A Short History of the Jews|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofje00bren|url-access=registration |year=2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-14351-4}}</ref><ref name="Adams1840">{{cite book |last=Adams |first=Hannah |title=The History of the Jews: From the Destruction of Jerusalem to the Present Time|url=https://archive.org/details/historyjewsfrom00adamgoog|year=1840|publisher=London Society House}}</ref>
| ref16 = <ref name="JDB" />
] links the early Canaanite ] confederation to the ] known to the Egyptians around the 15th century BCE.<ref>{{Citation |last=Rendsburg |first=Gary A. |title=1 Israel Without the Bible |date=31 December 2022 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814733080.003.0005 |work=The Hebrew Bible |pages=1–23 |access-date=7 December 2023 |publisher=New York University Press |doi=10.18574/nyu/9780814733080.003.0005 |isbn=978-0-8147-3308-0}}</ref>


According to the ] narrative, Jewish ancestry is traced back to the ] such as ], his son ], Isaac's son ], and the Biblical matriarchs ], ], ], and ], who lived in ]. The ] are described as descending from the twelve sons of Jacob. Jacob and his family migrated to ] after being invited to live with Jacob's son ] by the ] himself. The patriarchs' descendants were later enslaved until the ] led by ], after which the Israelites conquered Canaan under Moses' successor ], went through the period of the ] after the death of Joshua, then through the mediation of ] became subject to a king, ], who was succeeded by ] and then ], after whom the ] ended and was split into a separate ] and a ]. The Kingdom of Judah is described as comprising the tribes of ], ], partially ], and later adding remnants of other tribes who migrated there from the northern Kingdom of Israel.<ref name="Broshi 2001 174">{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PA174|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2001 |page=174 |isbn=1-84127-201-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Judah |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judah-Hebrew-tribe |access-date=1 April 2018 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/MAGAZINE-israelite-refugees-found-high-office-in-judah-seals-found-in-jerusalem-show-1.5448092|title=Israelite refugees found high office in Kingdom of Judah, seals found in Jerusalem show|newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref>
| region17 = {{flag|Italy}}
| pop17 = 27,600
| ref17 = <ref name="JDB" />


In the extra-biblical record, the Israelites become visible as a people between 1200 and 1000&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Spielvogel |first1=Jackson J. |title=Western civilization |date=2012 |publisher=Wadsworth/Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-91324-5 |edition=8th |location=Australia |page=33 |quote=What is generally agreed, however, is that between 1200 and 1000 B.C.E., the Israelites emerged as a distinct group of people, possibly united into tribes or a league of tribes}}</ref> There is well accepted archeological evidence referring to "Israel" in the ], which dates to about 1200&nbsp;BCE,<ref name="NollMerneptah">{{Cite book|last=Noll|first=K. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMeRK7B1EsMC&pg=PA139|title=Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion: Second Edition|date=7 December 2012|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-44117-1|language=en}}</ref><ref name="ThompsonMerneptah">{{Cite book|last=Thompson|first=Thomas L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RwrrUuHFb6UC&pg=PA275|title=Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources|date=1 January 2000|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-11943-7|language=en|quote=They are rather a very specific group among the population of Palestine which bears a name that occurs here for the first time that at a much later stage in Palestine's history bears a substantially different signification.|pages=137ff}}</ref> and in the Mesha stele from 840&nbsp;BCE. It is debated whether a period like that of the ] occurred<ref name="Yoder2015">{{Cite book |last=Yoder |first=John C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7kFCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5%257CYEAR=2015%257CPUBLISHER=FORTRESS |title=Power and Politics in the Book of Judges: Men and Women of Valor |date=2015 |publisher=Augsburg Fortress Publishers |isbn=978-1-4514-9642-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Brettler2002">{{cite book |author=Marc Zvi Brettler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9j9Jbcl6g38C&pg=PA107 |title=The Book of Judges |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-16216-6 |page=107}}</ref><ref name="Thompson2000">{{cite book |author=Thomas L. Thompson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RwrrUuHFb6UC&pg=PA96 |title=Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources |publisher=Brill |year=2000 |isbn=90-04-11943-4 |page=96}}</ref><ref name="HjelmThompson2016">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmOaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |title=History, Archaeology and The Bible Forty Years After "Historicity": Changing Perspectives |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-42815-2 |editor-last=Hjelm |editor-first=Ingrid |page=4 |editor-last2=Thompson |editor-first2=Thomas L}}</ref><ref name="Davies1995">{{cite book |author=Philip R. Davies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5D5GNju1-ggC&pg=PA26 |title=In Search of "Ancient Israel": A Study in Biblical Origins |publisher=A&C Black |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-85075-737-5 |page=26}}</ref> and if there ever was a ].<ref name="lipschits">{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |language=en |chapter=The History of Israel in the Biblical Period |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi}}</ref><ref name="Finkelstein">{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=0-684-86912-8 |edition=1st Touchstone |location=New York}}</ref><ref name="Kuhrtp438">{{cite book |last=Kuhrt |first=Amiele |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh/page/438 |title=The Ancient Near East |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-415-16762-8 |page=}}</ref><ref name="Wright">{{cite web |last1=Wright |first1=Jacob L. |date=July 2014 |title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel) |url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml |publisher=The Bible and Interpretation}}</ref> There is further disagreement about the earliest existence of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their extent and power. Historians agree that a ] existed by {{Circa|900 BCE}},<ref name="Finkelstein" />{{rp|169–95}}<ref name="Kuhrtp438" /><ref name="Wright" /> there is a consensus that a ] existed by c.&nbsp;700&nbsp;BCE at least,<ref name="Pitcher">{{Cite book |last1=Holloway |first1=Steven W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&pg=PA229 |title=The Pitcher is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gösta W. Ahlström |last2=Handy |first2=Lowell K. |date=1 May 1995 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-567-63671-3 |language=en |quote=For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.}}</ref> and recent excavations in ] have provided strong evidence for dating the Kingdom of Judah to the 10th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garfinkel |first1=Yosef |last2=Ganor |first2=Saar |date=2008-12-31 |title=Khirbet Qeiyafa: Sha'arayim |url=https://jhsonline.org/index.php/jhs/article/view/6220 |journal=Journal of Hebrew Scriptures |volume=8|doi=10.5508/jhs.2008.v8.a22 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 587&nbsp;BCE, ], King of the ], ], destroyed the ] and deported parts of the Judahite population.<ref name="us-israel-archaeology">{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Luke |date=3 February 2017 |title=Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon |newspaper=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203}}</ref>
| region18 = {{flag|Switzerland}}
| pop18 = 18,900
| ref18 = <ref name="JDB" />


Scholars disagree regarding the extent to which the Bible should be accepted as a historical source for early Israelite history. ] states that there are two approximately equal groups of scholars who debate the ], the ] who largely reject it, and the maximalists who largely accept it, with the minimalists being the more vocal of the two.<ref>Rendsburg, Gary A.. "1 Israel Without the Bible". ''The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship'', edited by Frederick E. Greenspahn, New York, USA: New York University Press, 2007, p. 7. https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814733080.003.0005: "I am not sure I can quantify the schools, that is, tell you that the majority of biblical scholars today are maximalist or minimalist - I suppose the divide is about 50-50 - But I can tell you this: there is no doubt that the minimalists are more vocal, and they are the ones who set the agenda, publish books at a very rapid pace, organize conferences to present their views (especially in Europe) and take advantage of the popular press. The maximalists, in turn, frequently are left to respond to these diatribes, often needing to take time away from their own research to counter the views expressed in the many publications emanating from the pens of minimalist scholars."</ref>
| region19 = {{flag|Chile}}
| pop19 = 18,400
| ref19 = <ref name="JDB" />


Some of the leading minimalists reframe the biblical account as constituting the ]' inspiring ] narrative, suggesting that according to the modern archaeological and historical account, the Israelites and their culture did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of the ] and culture through the development of a distinct ]—and later ]—religion of ] centered on ], one of the gods of the Canaanite pantheon. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of cultic practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ], setting them apart from other Canaanites.<ref>Tubb, 1998. pp. 13–14{{full citation needed|date=October 2020}}</ref><ref>Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000&nbsp;BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)</ref><ref>Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5</ref> According to ], modern ] have largely discarded the search for evidence of the biblical narrative surrounding the patriarchs and the exodus.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |year=2001 |publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=3-927120-37-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}</ref>
| region20 = {{flag|Iran}}
| pop20 = 9,900
| ref20 = <ref name="JDB" />


According to the maximalist position, the modern archaeological record independently points to a narrative which largely agrees with the biblical account. This narrative provides a testimony of the Israelites as a ]ic people known to the ] as belonging to the ]. Over time these nomads left the desert and settled on the central mountain range of the land of Canaan, in simple semi-nomadic settlements in which pig bones are notably absent. This population gradually shifted from a ] lifestyle to a monarchy. While the archaeological record of the ninth century BCE provides evidence for two monarchies, one in the south under a dynasty founded by a figure named David with its capital in ], and one in the north under a dynasty founded by a figure named ] with its capital in ]. It also points to an early monarchic period in which these regions shared ] and religion, suggesting a common origin. Archaeological finds also provide evidence for the later cooperation of these two kingdoms in their coalition against ], and for their destructions by the ]ns and later by the Babylonians.<ref>Rendsburg, Gary A.. "1 Israel Without the Bible". ''The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship'', edited by Frederick E. Greenspahn, New York, USA: New York University Press, 2007, pp. 7-23. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814733080.003.0005</nowiki></ref>
| region21 = Rest of the world
| pop21 = 218,100
| ref21 = <ref name="JDB" />


] show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the ], and that they share certain genetic traits with other Gentile peoples of the ].<ref name="WhoAreTheJews">{{cite web |author=Jared Diamond |year=1993 |title=Who are the Jews? |url=http://ftp.beitberl.ac.il/~bbsite/misc/ezer_anglit/klali/05_123.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721133548/http://ftp.beitberl.ac.il/~bbsite/misc/ezer_anglit/klali/05_123.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 |access-date=8 November 2010}} Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hammer |first1=MF |last2=Redd |first2=AJ |last3=Wood |first3=ET |display-authors=etal |date=June 2000 |title=Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=97 |issue=12 |pages=6769–74 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.6769H |doi=10.1073/pnas.100115997 |pmc=18733 |pmid=10801975 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |date=9 May 2000 |title=Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/09/science/y-chromosome-bears-witness-to-story-of-the-jewish-diaspora.html |access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common gene pool dating back four millennia, as a marker of their common ancestral origin.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Balter |first=Michael |date=3 June 2010 |title=Tracing the Roots of Jewishness |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/tracing-roots-jewishness-rev2 |access-date=4 October 2018 |journal=]}}</ref> Despite their long-term separation, Jewish communities maintained their unique commonalities, propensities, and sensibilities in culture, tradition, and language.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gFtYAgAAQBAJ&q=the+importance+of+ancestral+origin+box+5-1&pg=PT116 |title=Genes, Behavior, and the Social Environment:: Moving Beyond the Nature ...By Committee on Assessing Interactions Among Social, Behavioral, and Genetic Factors in Health, Board on Health Sciences Policy, Institute of Medicine, Lyla M. Hernandez |date=2006 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-10196-7 |page=100 |language=en}}</ref>
| languages = {{Plainlist|
* '''Predominant spoken languages:<ref name=Languages>{{cite web|url=http://www.bh.org.il/links.aspx|title=Links|access-date=2 April 2012|publisher=]|archive-url=//web.archive.org/web/20090326102214/http://www.bh.org.il/links/jewishlangs.asp|archive-date=26 March 2009}}</ref>'''
* {{Hlist|]|]|]|]|the ] languages of {{allow wrap|other countries in the ]}}}}
}}
'''Historical languages:'''<br />{{Hlist|]|]|]|]}}
'''Sacred languages:'''<br />{{Hlist|]|]}}
| religions = ]
| related = ],<ref name="evolutsioon" /> ], other ]ines,<ref name="evolutsioon">{{cite journal|pmid=15300852|url=http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Shen2004.pdf|year=2004|last1=Shen|first1=P|last2=Lavi|first2=T|last3=Kivisild|first3=T|last4=Chou|first4=V|last5=Sengun|first5=D|last6=Gefel|first6=D|last7=Shpirer|first7=I|last8=Woolf|first8=E|last9=Hillel|first9=J|title=Reconstruction of patrilineages and matrilineages of Samaritans and other Israeli populations from Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA sequence variation|volume=24|issue=3|pages=248–60|doi=10.1002/humu.20077|journal=Human Mutation}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Studies Show Jews' Genetic Similarity|first= Nicholas|last= Wade|date=9 June 2010|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/10/science/10jews.html?_r=0|work=New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s004390000426|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Nebel-HG-00-IPArabs.pdf|title=High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews|year=2000|last1=Nebel|first1=Almut|last2=Filon|first2=Dvora|last3=Weiss|first3=Deborah A.|last4=Weale|first4=Michael|last5=Faerman|first5=Marina|last6=Oppenheim|first6=Ariella|last7=Thomas|first7=Mark G.|journal=Human Genetics|volume=107|issue=6|pages=630–41|pmid=11153918}}</ref><ref name="sciencedaily">{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/05/000509003653.htm |title=Jews Are The Genetic Brothers Of Palestinians, Syrians, And Lebanese |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=9 May 2000 |access-date=12 April 2013}}</ref> ],<ref name="evolutsioon" /><ref name="Abraham 2010">{{cite journal|pmc=3032072|year=2010|last1=Atzmon|first1=G|last2=Hao|first2=L|last3=Pe'Er|first3=I|last4=Velez|first4=C|last5=Pearlman|first5=A|last6=Palamara|first6=PF|last7=Morrow|first7=B|last8=Friedman|first8=E|last9=Oddoux|first9=C|title=Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry|volume=86|issue=6|pages=850–859|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|pmid=20560205}}</ref> ]<ref name="evolutsioon" /><ref name="sciencedaily" />
}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar}}


== History ==
The '''Jews''' ({{IPA-en|dʒuːz|}};<ref>{{cite book | last = Jespersen | first = Otto | title = A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles : Volume 1, Sounds and Spellings | publisher = Routledge | location = City | year = 2013 | page = 384 | isbn = 1135663513 }}</ref> {{lang-he-n|יְהוּדִים}} <small>]</small> {{transl|he|''Yhudim''}}, <small>Israeli pronunciation</small> {{IPA-he|jehuˈdim|}}), also known as the '''Jewish people''', are an ]<ref name="Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group"/> originating from the ]s, or ], of the ].<ref>* "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament." at </ref><ref>"Hebrew, any member of an ancient northern Semitic people that were the ancestors of the Jews." at </ref> Jewish ], ] and ] are strongly interrelated, as ] is the ] of the Jewish nation,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://louisville.edu/law/library/special-collections/the-louis-d.-brandeis-collection/the-jewish-problem-how-to-solve-it-by-louis-d.-brandeis|title=The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It|first=Louis|last=Brandeis|authorlink=Louis Brandeis|date=25 April 1915|publisher=University of Louisville School of Law|accessdate=2 April 2012|quote=Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Palmer|first1=Edward Henry|authorlink1=Edward Henry Palmer|title=A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishn00palm|accessdate=2 April 2012|date=14 October 2002|origyear=First published 1874|publisher=Gorgias Press|isbn=978-1-931956-69-7|oclc=51578088|laysummary=http://www.gorgiaspress.com/bookshop/pc-45-60-palmer-e-history-of-the-jewish-nation.aspx}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/materials/jewish_nationality.pdf|title=How I Became a Zionist|first=Albert|last=Einstein|authorlink=Albert Einstein|work=]|quote=The Jewish nation is a living fact|date=21 June 1921|publisher=]|accessdate=5 April 2012}}</ref> while its observance varies from strict observance to complete nonobservance.
{{main|Jewish history}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of Jewish history}}


{{Tribes of Israel}}
Jews ] as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE,<ref name="Abraham 2010"/> in the part of the ] known as the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/History/Pages/Facts%20about%20Israel-%20History.aspx|title=Facts About Israel: History|date=|work=GxMSDev}}</ref> The ] appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god ],<ref>Kenton L. Sparks, Eisenbrauns, 1998 pp.95ff.p.108.:'The probable use of the "Israel" by the people of Israel can reasonably imply two things: both a common cultural identity and a shared devotion to the god El.'</ref> somewhere in ] as far back as the 13th century BCE (Late Bronze Age).<ref>K. L. Noll, A&C Black, 2012, rev.ed. pp.137ff.</ref><ref>], BRILL, 2000 pp.275–276:'They are rather a very specific group among the population of Palestine which bears a name that occurs here for the first time that at a much later stage in Palestine's history bears a substantially different signification.'</ref> The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population,<ref>], Bloomsbury Publishing, 2005 pp.47.5p.48:'In this sense, the emergence of ancient Israel is viewed not as the cause of the demise of Canaanite culture but as its upshot'.</ref> consolidated their hold with the emergence of the ], and the ]. Some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as 'Hebrews'.<ref>Day,pp.31–33,p.57.n.33.</ref> Though few sources in the ] mention the exilic periods in detail,<ref>], Society of Biblical Lit, 2003 pp.45ff:'Since the exilic era constitutes a gaping hole in the historical narrative of the Bible, historical reconstruction of this era faces almost insurmountable difficulties. Like the premonarchic period and the late Persian period, the exilic period, though set in the bright light of Ancient Near Eastern history, remains historically obscure. Since there are very few Israelite sources, the only recourse is to try to cast some light on this darkness from the history of the surrounding empires under whose dominion Israel came in this period.'</ref> the experience of ] life, from the ], to ], to ], to ], to the ], and the historical relations between Jews and their homeland thereafter, became a major feature of Jewish history, identity and memory.<ref name="Perry2012">{{cite book|author=Marvin Perry|title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC|date=1 January 2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=1-111-83720-1|page=87}}</ref><ref>Botticini, Maristella and Zvi Eckstein. p. 18-19. August 2006. Accessed 21 November 2015. "The death toll of the Great Revolt against the Roman empire amounted to about 600,000 Jews, whereas the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 caused the death of about 500,000 Jews. Massacres account for roughly 40 percent of the decrease of the Jewish population in Palestine. Moreover, some Jews migrated to Babylon after these revolts because of the worse economic conditions. After accounting for massacres and migrations, there is an additional 30 to 40 percent of the decrease in the Jewish population in Palestine (about 1—1.3 million Jews) to be explained" (p. 19).</ref><ref> "...it is crucial to recognize that the Jewish conception of the Land of Israel is similar to the discourse of the Land of many (if not nearly all) "indigenous" peoples of the world. Somehow the Jews have managed to retain a sense of being rooted somewhere in the world through twenty centuries of exile from that someplace (organic metaphors are not out of place in this discourse, for they are used within the tradition itself). It is profoundly disturbing to hear Jewish attachment to the Land decried as regressive in the same discursive situations in which the attachment of native Americans or Australians to their particular rocks, trees, and deserts is celebrated as an organic connection to the Earth that "we" have lost" p. 714.</ref><ref> "...although the word Babylon often connotes captivity and oppression, a rereading of the Babylonian period of exile can thus be shown to demonstrate the development of a new creative energy in a challenging, pluralistic context outside the natal homeland. When the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in AD 70, it was Babylon that remained as the nerve- and brain-centre for Jewish life and thought...the crushing of the revolt of the Judaeans against the Romans and the destruction of the Second Temple by the Roman general Titus in AD 70 precisely confirmed the catastrophic tradition. Once again, Jews had been unable to sustain a national homeland and were scattered to the far corners of the world" (p. 24).</ref><ref>:
Paul Johnson analyzes Cassius Dio's ''Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX'' para. 13–14 (Dio's passage cited separately) among other sources:
"Even if Dio's figures are somewhat exaggerated, the casualties amongst the population and the destruction inflicted on the country would have been considerable. According to Jerome, many Jews were also sold into slavery, so many, indeed, that the price of Jewish slaves at the slave market in Hebron sank drastically to a level no greater than that for a horse. The economic structure of the country was largely destroyed. The entire spiritual and economic life of the Palestinian Jews moved to Galilee. Jerusalem was now turned into a Roman colony with the official name ''Colonia Aelia Capitolina'' (''Aelia'' after Hadrian's family name: P. Aelius Hadrianus; ''Capitolina'' after Jupiter Capitolinus). The Jews were forbidden on pain of death to set foot in the new Roman city. Aelia thus became a completely pagan city, no doubt with the corresponding public buildings and temples...We can...be certain that a statue of Hadrian was erected in the centre of Aelia, and this was tantamount in itself to a desecration of Jewish Jerusalem." p. 159.</ref><ref>:
"13 At first the Romans took no account of them. Soon, however, all Judaea had been stirred up, and the Jews everywhere were showing signs of disturbance, were gathering together, and giving evidence of great hostility to the Romans, partly by secret and partly by overt acts; 2 many outside nations, too, were joining them through eagerness for gain, and the whole earth, one might almost say, was being stirred up over the matter. Then, indeed, Hadrian sent against them his best generals. First of these was Julius Severus, who was dispatched from Britain, where he was governor, against the Jews. 3 Severus did not venture to attack his opponents in the open at any one point, in view of their numbers and their desperation, but by intercepting small groups, thanks to the number of his soldiers and his under-officers, and by depriving them of food and shutting them up, he was able, rather slowly, to be sure, but with comparatively little danger, to crush, exhaust and exterminate them. Very few of them in fact survived.
14 1 Fifty of their most important outposts and nine hundred and eighty-five of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. Five hundred and eighty thousand men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out. 2 Thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate, a result of which the people had had forewarning before the war. For the tomb of Solomon, which the Jews regard as an object of veneration, fell to pieces of itself and collapsed, and many wolves and hyenas rushed howling into their cities. 3 Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore Hadrian in writing to the senate did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors, 'If you and our children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health'" (para. 13–14).</ref><ref>{{Dead link|date=February 2016}} "...diaspora referred to a very specific case—that of the exile of the Jews from the Holy Land and their dispersal throughout several parts of the globe. Diaspora connoted deracination, legal disabilities, oppression, and an often painful adjustment to a hostland whose hospitality was unreliable and ephemeral. It also connoted the existence on foreign soil of an expatriate community that considered its presence to be transitory. Meanwhile, it developed a set of institutions, social patterns, and ethnonational and/or religious sym- bols that held it together. These included the language, religion, values, social norms, and narratives of the homeland. Gradually, this community adjusted to the hostland environment and became itself a center of cultural creation. All the while, however, it continued to cultivate the idea of return to the homeland." (p. 36).</ref><ref> "...the Jewish nation, which from its very earliest days believed and claimed that it was the "chosen people," and hence unique. This attitude has further been buttressed by the equally traditional view, which is held not only by the Jews themselves, about the exceptional historical age of this diaspora, its singular traumatic experiences its singular ability to survive pogroms, exiles, and Holocaust, as well as its "special relations" with its ancient homeland, culminating in 1948 with the nation-state that the Jewish nation has established there... First, like many other members of established diasporas, the vast majority of Jews no longer regard themselves as being in ''Galut'' in their host countries.7 Perceptually, as well as actually, Jews permanently reside in host countries of their own free will, as a result of inertia, or as a result of problematic conditions prevailing in other hostlands, or in Israel. It means that the basic perception of many Jews about their existential situation in their hostlands has changed. Consequently, there is both a much greater self- and collective-legitimatization to refrain from making serious plans concerning "return" or actually "making Aliyah" to Israel. This is one of the results of their wider, yet still rather problematic and sometimes painful acceptance by the societies and political systems in their host countries. It means that they, and to an extent their hosts, do not regard Jewish life within the framework of diasporic formations in these hostlands as something that they should be ashamed of, hide from others, or alter by returning to the old homeland" (p. 4).</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BjtWLZhhMoYC|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date = 1 January 1984|isbn = 9780521772488|first = William David|last = Davies|first2 = Louis|last2 = Finkelstein|first3 = Steven T.|last3 = Katz|quote = "Although Dio's figure of 985 as the number of villages destroyed during the war seems hyperbolic, all Judaean villages, without exception, excavated thus far were razed following the Bar Kochba Revolt. This evidence supports the impression of total regional destruction following the war. Historical sources note the vast number of captives sold into slavery in Palestine and shipped abroad." ... "The Judaean Jewish community never recovered from the Bar Kochba war. In its wake, Jews no longer formed the majority in Palestine, and the Jewish center moved to the Galilee. Jews were also subjected to a series of religious edicts promulgated by Hadrian that were designed to uproot the nationalistic elements with the Judaean Jewish community, these proclamations remained in effect until Hadrian's death in 138. An additional, more lasting punitive measure taken by the Romans involved expunging Judaea from the provincial name, changing it from Provincia Judaea to Provincia Syria Palestina. Although such name changes occurred elsewhere, never before or after was a nation's name expunged as the result of rebellion."}}</ref><ref>Dalit Rom-Shiloni, '''', A&C Black, 2013 p.xv n.3:'it is argued that biblical texts of the Neo-Babylonian and the early Persian periods show a fierce adversarial relationship(s) between the Judean groups. We find no expressions of sympathy to the deported community for its dislocation, no empathic expressions towards the People Who Remained under Babylonian subjugation in Judah. The opposite is apparent: hostile, denigrating, and denunciating language characterizes the relationships between resident and exiled Judeans throughout the sixth and fifth centuries.' (p.xvii)</ref>


=== Israel and Judah ===
The worldwide ] reached a peak of 16.7&nbsp;million prior to ],<ref name="JVIL2010">{{cite web|url = https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html|title = The Jewish Population of the World (2014)|work = ]|accessdate = 30 June 2015}}, based on {{cite book|title = American Jewish Year Book|publisher = ]|url = http://www.ajcarchives.org/main.php?GroupingId=10142}}</ref> but approximately 6&nbsp;million Jews were systematically murdered<ref>{{cite web|title = Holocaust {{!}} Basic questions about the Holocaust|url = http://www.projetaladin.org/holocaust/en/40-questions-40-answers/basic-questions-about-the-holocaust.html|website = www.projetaladin.org|accessdate = 10 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = The Holocaust - World War II - HISTORY.com|url = http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/the-holocaust|website = HISTORY.com|accessdate = 10 November 2015}}</ref> during ]. Since then the population has slowly risen again, and {{as of|2015|lc=y}} was estimated at 14.3&nbsp;million by the ],<ref name="JDB" /> or less than 0.2% of the total world population (roughly one in every 514 people).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4291987,00.html|title= Jews make up only 0.2% of mankind|publisher=]|date=October 2012}}</ref> According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in ] (6.2&nbsp;million), and 40% in the ] (5.7&nbsp;million), with most of the remainder living in ] (1.4&nbsp;million) and ] (0.4&nbsp;million).<ref name="JDB" /> These numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household.<ref>Jewish Virtual Library. ''World Jewish Population''. "Refers to the Core Jewish Population. The concept of core Jewish population includes all persons who, when asked in a socio-demographic survey, identify themselves as Jews; or who are identified as Jews by a respondent in the same household, and do not have another monotheistic religion." </ref> The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to issues with census methodology, disputes among proponents of '']'', secular, political, and ancestral identification factors regarding ] may affect the figure considerably depending on the source.<ref name="Pfeffer">{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/903585.html|archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20090319024731/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/903585.html|archivedate=19 March 2009|title=Jewish Agency: 13.2 million Jews worldwide on eve of Rosh Hashanah, 5768|accessdate=24 January 2009|last=Pfeffer|first=Anshel|date=12 September 2007|newspaper=Haaretz}}{{Dead link|date=February 2016}}</ref> Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern ] was established as a ] and defines itself as such in its ] and ]. Its ] grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it.<ref>A 1970 amendment to Israel's ] defines "Jew" as "a person who was born of a Jewish mother or has become converted to Judaism and who is not a member of another religion." {{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Immigration/Text_of_Law_of_Return.html|title=Law of Return}}</ref>
{{further|History of ancient Israel and Judah|}}
The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the ], which dates to around 1200&nbsp;BCE. The majority of scholars agree that this text refers to the ], a group that inhabited the central highlands of ], where archaeological evidence shows that hundreds of small settlements were constructed between the 12th and 10th centuries BCE.{{sfn|Stager|1998|p=91}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC&dq=What+did+the+biblical+writers+know&pg=PA102 |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3 |language=en}}</ref> The Israelites differentiated themselves from neighboring peoples through various distinct characteristics including ], ], and an emphasis on genealogy and family history.{{sfn|McNutt|1999|p=35}}{{sfn|Dever|2003|p=206}}{{sfn|Dever|2003|p=206}}


In the 10th century BCE, two neighboring Israelite kingdoms—the northern ] and the southern ]—emerged. Since their inception, they shared ethnic, cultural, ] and ] characteristics despite a complicated relationship. Israel, with its capital mostly in ], was larger and wealthier, and soon developed into a regional power.{{sfn|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146–7|ps=Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power}} In contrast, Judah, with its capital in ], was less prosperous and covered a smaller, mostly mountainous territory. However, while in Israel the royal succession was often decided by a military coup d'état, resulting in several dynasty changes, political stability in Judah was much greater, as it was ruled by the ] for the whole four centuries of its existence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lemaire |first=André |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1017604304 |title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the Holy Land |date=2018 |others=Robert G. Hoyland, H. G. M. Williamson |isbn=978-0-19-872439-1 |edition=1st |pages=61–85 |chapter=Israel and Judah |publisher=Oxford University Press |oclc=1017604304}}</ref>
Despite their small percentage of the world's population, Jews have significantly influenced and contributed to ] in many fields, including ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/maimonid/|title=Maimonides – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|work=utm.edu|accessdate=26 August 2015}}</ref> ],<ref>Sekine, Seizō. A Comparative Study of the Origins of Ethical Thought: Hellenism and Hebraism. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Print.</ref> ], ], ], ], ], ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dctheatrescene.com/2013/06/25/broadway-musicals-a-jewish-legacy/|title=Broadway Musicals: A Jewish Legacy|work=DC Theatre Scene}}</ref> and ], ],<ref>Roni Caryn Rabin , '']'' (14 May 2012). Accessed 16 August 2015.</ref><ref>Shatzmiller, Joseph. Doctors to Princes and Paupers: Jews, Medicine, and Medieval Society. Berkeley: U of California, 1995. Print.</ref> as well as ], both historically and in modern times.


Around 720&nbsp;BCE, Kingdom of Israel was destroyed when it was conquered by the ], which came to dominate the ancient Near East.<ref name="Broshi 2001 174" /> Under the ], a significant portion of the northern Israelite population was ] and replaced by immigrants from the same region.{{sfn|Tobolowsky|2022|pp=69–70; 73–75}} During the same period, and throughout the 7th century BCE, the Kingdom of Judah, now under Assyrian ], experienced a period of prosperity and witnessed a significant population growth.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0674397316 |editor-last=Ben-Sasson |editor-first=Haim Hillel |editor-link=H.H. Ben-Sasson |page=142 |quote=Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE. |access-date=12 October 2018}}</ref> This prosperity continued until the Neo-Assyrian king ] ] in response to a rebellion in the area, ultimately halting at ].<ref>Finkelstein, Israel and Mazar, Amihai. ''The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel''. Leiden: Brill, 2007. p. 166.</ref> Later in the same century, the Assyrians were defeated by the rising ], and Judah became its vassal. In 587&nbsp;BCE, following a ], the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar&nbsp;II ] and the ], putting an end to the kingdom. The majority of Jerusalem's residents, including the kingdom's elite, were ].{{sfn|Lipiński|2020|p=94}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lipschits |first=Oded |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/j.ctv1bxh5fd |title=The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule |date=2005 |publisher=Penn State University Press |isbn=978-1-57506-297-6 |pages=367 |doi=10.5325/j.ctv1bxh5fd|jstor=10.5325/j.ctv1bxh5fd }}</ref>
==Name and etymology==
{{Main article|Jew (word)|Ioudaios}}
The English word ''Jew'' continues ] ''{{lang|enm|Gyw, Iewe}}''. These terms derive from ] ''{{lang|fro|giu}}'', earlier ''{{lang|fro|juieu}}'', which had ] (dropped) the letter "d" from the ] ''Iudaeus'', which, like the ] ] term ], meant both ''Jews'' and ''Judeans / "of ]"''.<ref>Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Facts On File Inc., Infobase Publishing, 2009, p.336</ref>


=== Second Temple period ===
The Greek term was originally a loan from ] ''{{transl|arc|Y'hūdāi}}'', corresponding to {{lang-he-n|יְהוּדִי}}, ''Yehudi'' (sg.); {{Hebrew|יְהוּדִים}}, ''Yehudim'' (]), in origin the term for a member of the ] or the people of the ]. According to the ], the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from ], the fourth son of ].<ref>"Jew", ''Oxford English Dictionary''.</ref>
{{further|Second Temple period|Jewish–Roman wars}}
According to the ], the Persian ] ended the ] in 538&nbsp;BCE,<ref name="rennert">{{cite web|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html |title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule |publisher=Biu.ac.il |access-date=15 March 2014}}</ref> the year after he captured Babylon.<ref>''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103</ref> The exile ended with the return under ] the Prince (so called because he was a descendant of the royal line of ]) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former ]) and their construction of the ] circa 521–516 BCE.<ref name="rennert" /> As part of the ], the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah ('']''),<ref>Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or "Judah", and "medinata" the word for province</ref> with a smaller territory<ref name="Grabbe355">{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&pg=PA355 |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1 |publisher=T & T Clark |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-567-08998-4 |page=355}}</ref> and a reduced population.<ref name="Finkelstein" />


Judea was under control of the ] until the fall of their empire in c.&nbsp;333&nbsp;BCE to ]. After several centuries under foreign imperial rule, the ] against the ] resulted in an independent ], under which the Jews once again enjoyed political independence for a period spanning from 110 to 63&nbsp;BCE.<ref name="BangScheidel2013">{{cite book |author1=Peter Fibiger Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&pg=PAPA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |author2=Walter Scheidel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–187 |access-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&pg=PAPA184 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Under Hasmonean rule the boundaries of their kingdom were expanded to include not only the land of the historical ], but also the ] and ].<ref>Stern, Menahem. (2007). "Hasmoneans". In Skolnik, Fred (ed.). Encyclopaedia Judaica Volume 8 Gos–Hep (2nd ed.). Michigan: Thompson Gale. p. 446.</ref> In the beginning of this process the ], who had infiltrated southern Judea after the destruction of the ], were converted en masse.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Levin |first=Yigal |date=2020-09-24 |title=The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism |journal=Religions |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=487 |doi=10.3390/rel11100487 |issn=2077-1444 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>], ''Geography'' Bk.16.2.34</ref> In 63&nbsp;BCE, Judea was conquered by the Romans. From 37&nbsp;BCE to 6&nbsp;CE, the Romans allowed the Jews to maintain some degree of independence by installing the ] as ]. However, Judea eventually came directly under Roman control and was incorporated into the ] as the ].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Peter Fibiger Bang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&pg=PA184 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |author2=Walter Scheidel |publisher=OUP USA |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-518831-8 |pages=184–87}}</ref><ref name="Malamat1976">{{cite book |author=Abraham Malamat |url={{Google books|2kSovzudhFUC|page=PA223|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=A History of the Jewish People |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-674-39731-6 |pages=223–239}}</ref>
The Hebrew word for Jew, {{Hebrew|יְהוּדִי}} <small>]</small> Yhudi, is pronounced {{IPA-he|jehuˈdi|}}, with the stress on the final syllable, in Israeli Hebrew, in its basic form.<ref name=EJ253>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Grintz|first=Yehoshua M.|editor=Fred Skolnik|encyclopedia=]|title=Jew|edition=2d|year=2007|publisher=Thomson Gale|volume=11|location=Farmington Hills, Mich.|isbn=0-02-865928-7|page=253|ref=harv }}</ref> The ] name is {{Hebrew|ג׳ודיו}}, ''Djudio'' (sg.); {{Hebrew|ג׳ודיוס}}, ''Djudios'' (pl.); ]: {{Hebrew|ייִד}} ''Yid'' (sg.); {{Hebrew|ייִדן}}, ''Yidn'' (pl.).


The ], a series of unsuccessful revolts against Roman rule during the first and second centuries CE, had significant and disastrous consequences for the Jewish population of ].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Zissu |first=Boaz |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/988856967 |title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE |date=2018 |others=Joshua Schwartz, Peter J. Tomson |isbn=978-90-04-34986-5 |pages=19 |chapter=Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective |publisher=Brill |oclc=988856967}}</ref><ref name="FahlbuschBromiley2005">{{cite book |author1=Erwin Fahlbusch |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PAPA15 |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |author2=Geoffrey William Bromiley |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |pages=15– |access-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160412/https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PAPA15 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ] (66–73 CE) culminated in the ]. The severely reduced Jewish population of Judaea was denied any kind of political self-government.<ref name="AHJ-GM">{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=A History of Judaism |date=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18127-1 |location=Princeton Oxford |pages=21, 232}}</ref> A few generations later, the ] (132–136 CE) erupted, and its brutal suppression by the Romans led to the depopulation of ]. Following the revolt, Jews were forbidden from residing in the vicinity of Jerusalem, and the Jewish demographic center in ] shifted to ].<ref name="Mor, M. 2016. P471">Mor, M. ''The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132–136 CE''. Brill, 2016. P471/</ref><ref name="raviv2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Raviv |first1=Dvir |last2=Ben David |first2=Chaim |date=27 May 2021 |title=Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account? |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=585–607 |doi=10.1017/S1047759421000271 |issn=1047-7594 |s2cid=236389017 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>Powell, ''The Bar Kokhba War AD 132-136'', Osprey Publishing, Oxford, ç2017, p.80</ref> Similar upheavals impacted the Jewish communities in the empire's eastern provinces during the ] (115–117 CE), leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in ], ] and ],<ref name=":52">{{Citation |last1=Kerkeslager |first1=Allen |title=The Diaspora from 66 to c. 235 ce |date=2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |volume=4 |pages=62–63 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/diaspora-from-66-to-c-235-ce/5AECAD54BE6CA31C7968EED92D6CA36A |access-date=2024-09-10 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.004 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |last2=Setzer |first2=Claudia |last3=Trebilco |first3=Paul |last4=Goodblatt |first4=David}}</ref><ref name="Zeev-2006">{{Citation |last=Zeev |first=Miriam Pucci Ben |title=The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |date=2006-06-22 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism |pages=98 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part |access-date=2024-09-08 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.005 |isbn=978-1-139-05513-0}}</ref> including the highly influential community in ].<ref name="AHJ-GM" /><ref name=":52" />
The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., يَهُودِيّ ''yahūdī'' (sg.), ''al-yahūd'' (pl.), and بَنُو اِسرَائِيل ''banū isrāʼīl'' in ], "Jude" in ], "judeu" in ], "juif" in ], "jøde" in ] and ], "judío" in ], "jood" in ], "żyd" in ] etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jew, e.g., in ] (''Ebreo''), in ] ("Ebri/Ebrani" ({{lang-fa|عبری/عبرانی}})) and ] (''Еврей, Yevrey'').<ref>{{cite book|last=Falk|first=Avner|authorlink=Avner Falk|title=A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews|year=1996|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|location=Madison, N.J.|isbn=0-8386-3660-8|page=131 }}</ref> The German word "Jude" is pronounced {{IPA-de|ˈjuːdə|}}, the corresponding ] "jüdisch" {{IPA-de|ˈjyːdɪʃ|}} (Jewish) is the origin of the word "Yiddish".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary|title=Yiddish|edition=11th|year=2004|publisher=Merriam-Webster|location=Springfield, Massachusetts|isbn=0-87779-809-5|page=1453|ref=harv }}</ref> (See ] for a full overview.)
],'' or "captive Judea" (71&nbsp;CE), representing Judea as a seated mourning woman (right), and a Jewish captive with hands tied (left)]]The destruction of the Second Temple in 70&nbsp;CE brought profound changes to Judaism. With the Temple's central place in Jewish worship gone, religious practices shifted towards ], ] (including ]), and communal gatherings in ]s. Judaism also lost much of its ] nature.<ref name="Magness">{{cite book |author=Jodi Magness |title=Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-21744-7 |editor1=Daniel R. Schwartz |chapter=Sectarianism before and after 70 CE |editor2=Zeev Weiss |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&q=diaspora+70+ce&pg=PA189}}</ref>{{rp|69}} Two of the three main sects that flourished during the late Second Temple period, namely the ] and ], eventually disappeared, while ] beliefs became the foundational, liturgical, and ritualistic basis of ], which emerged as the prevailing form of Judaism since late antiquity.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Karesh |first=Sara E. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1162305378 |title=Encyclopedia of Judaism |year=2006 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-1-78785-171-9 |oclc=1162305378 |quote=Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.}}</ref>


=== Babylon and Rome ===
According to '']'', fourth edition (2000):
{{further|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Talmudic academies in Babylonia}}
<blockquote>It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun ''Jew'', in phrases such as ''Jew lawyer'' or ''Jew ethics'', is both ] and highly offensive. In such contexts ''Jewish'' is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of ''Jew'' as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as ''There are now several Jews on the council'', which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like ''Jewish people'' or ''persons of Jewish background'' may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/Jew |title=Jew |publisher=] |accessdate=2 April 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805210424/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/jew |archivedate=August 5, 2011 }}</ref></blockquote>


The ] existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.<ref>], ], 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–34: 'Compulsory dislocation, ....cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. ... The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.'</ref><ref name="AHJ-GM"/> In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in ], listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by ], and further evidence are the ], dated to the 6th–5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the ],<ref name="us-israel-archaeology" /> though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626&nbsp;BCE.<ref>Zadok R. Judeans in Babylonia–Updating the Dossier. in U.Gabbay and Sh.Secunda. (eds.). ''Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians and Babylonians in Antiquity'', Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 160. Tübingen: MohrSiebeck. pp. 109–110.</ref> In Egypt, the ] reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th–4th centuries BCE, and according to ] the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by ].<ref>Josephus Flavius, ''Against Appion''. 4.II</ref> By 200&nbsp;BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in ] and ] ("]" in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in ], ], ], ], and, beginning in the middle of the first century BCE, in the city of ].<ref name="Smallwood">{{cite book |author=E. Mary Smallwood |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0521243773 |editor1=William David Davies |chapter=The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70 |editor2=Louis Finkelstein |editor3=William Horbury |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&q=Diaspora+before+70&pg=PA168}}</ref><ref name="AHJ-GM"/> Later, in the first centuries CE, as a result of the ], a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the ] as well as in ] and Mesopotamia.
==Origins==
{{See also|Origins of Judaism|Jewish history|Israelites|History of Ancient Israel and Judah|Canaan}}
]]]
A factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities and variety written in at least ten near Eastern languages. As archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious and cultural prejudices.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/06/israel-archaeology-findings-ideology-politics-moshe-dayan.html|title=Israel Archaeology Findings Ideology Politics|last=|first=|date=|work=|access-date=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=}}</ref>


After the ], the Jewish population in ], now significantly reduced in size, made efforts to recover from the revolt's devastating effects, but never fully regained its previous strength.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Ehrlich |first=Michael |title=The Islamization of the Holy Land, 634–1800 |publisher=Arc Humanities Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-64189-222-3 |location=Leeds, UK |pages=3–4 |oclc=1302180905 |quote=The Jewish community strove to recover from the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhva revolt (132–135 CE). Although some of these attempts were relatively successful, the Jews never fully recovered. During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, many Jews emigrated to thriving centres in the diaspora, especially Iraq, whereas some converted to Christianity and others continued to live in the Holy Land, especially in Galilee and the coastal plain. During the Byzantine period, the three provinces of Palestine included more than thirty cities, namely, settlements with a bishop see. After the Muslim conquest in the 630s, most of these cities declined and eventually disappeared. As a result, in many cases the local ecclesiastical administration weakened, while in others it simply ceased to exist. Consequently, many local Christians converted to Islam. Thus, almost twelve centuries later, when the army led by Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in the Holy Land, most of the local population was Muslim.}}</ref><ref>Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. ''Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society''. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.</ref> In the second to fourth centuries CE, the region of ] emerged as the new center of Jewish life in ], experiencing a cultural and demographic flourishing. It was in this period that two central rabbinic texts, the ] and the ], were composed.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Leibner |first=Uzi |url=https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/43969 |title=Settlement and History in Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Galilee: An Archaeological Survey of the Eastern Galilee |date=2009 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=978-3-16-151460-9 |pages=321–324; 362–371; 396–400; 414–416 |hdl=20.500.12657/43969 |language=English}}</ref> However, as the Roman Empire was replaced by the ] Byzantine Empire under ], Jews came to be persecuted by the church and the authorities, and many immigrated to communities in the diaspora. In the fourth century CE, Jews are believed to have lost their position as the majority in ].<ref name="Kessler20102">{{cite book |author=Edward Kessler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87Woe7kkPM4C&pg=PA72 |title=An Introduction to Jewish-Christian Relations |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-70562-2 |page=72 |quote=Jews probably remained in the majority in Palestine until some time after the conversion of Constantine in the fourth century. In Babylonia, there had been for many centuries a Jewish community which would have been further strengthened by those fleeing the aftermath of the Roman revolts.}}</ref><ref name=":12" />
According to the ] narrative, Jewish ancestry is traced back to the ] such as ], his son ], Isaac's son ], and the Biblical matriarchs ], ], ], and ], who lived in ] around the 18th century BCE. Jacob and his family migrated to ] after being invited to live with Jacob's son ] by the ] himself. The patriarchs' descendants were later enslaved until the ] led by ], traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, after which the Israelites conquered Canaan.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}


The long-established Jewish community of Mesopotamia, which had been living under ] and later ] rule, beyond the confines of the Roman Empire, became an important center of ] as Judea's Jewish population declined.<ref name="Kessler20102" /><ref name=":12" /> Estimates often place the Babylonian Jewish community of the 3rd to 7th centuries at around one million, making it the largest Jewish diaspora community of that period.<ref name=":53">{{Citation |last=Gafni |first=Isaiah |title=The Political, Social, and Economic History of Babylonian Jewry, 224–638 CE |date=2006 |work=The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |volume=4 |pages=805 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/political-social-and-economic-history-of-babylonian-jewry-224638-ce/A4A6DB049FA37EE462757A705703A62F |access-date=2024-09-10 |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521772488.033 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8}}</ref> Under the political leadership of the ], who was regarded as a royal heir of the House of David, this community had an autonomous status and served as a place of refuge for the Jews of ]. A number of significant ], such as the ], ], and ] academies, were established in Mesopotamia, and many important '']'' were active there. The ], a centerpiece of Jewish religious law, was compiled in Babylonia in the 3rd to 6th centuries.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Talmud and Midrash (Judaism) :: The making of the Talmuds: 3rd–6th century |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/581644/Talmud-and-Midrash/34869/The-making-of-the-Talmuds-3rd-6th-century#ref=ref24372 |access-date=28 October 2013}}</ref>
Modern ] has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story,<ref>{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |year=2001 |publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=3-927120-37-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}</ref> with it being reframed as constituting the ]' inspiring ] narrative. The Israelites and their culture, according to the modern archaeological account, did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of the ] and culture through the development of a distinct ]—and later ]—religion centered on ],<ref>Tubb, 1998. pg-13-14</ref><ref>Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200 – 1000&nbsp;BC). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)</ref><ref>Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5</ref> one of the ]. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of cultic practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ], setting them apart from other Canaanites. The Canaanites themselves are archeologically attested in the ],<ref name="Golden">Jonathan M Golden, OUP USA, 2009 pp.3–4.</ref> while the ] is the last extant member of the ]. In the ] I period (1200–1000 BCE) Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature.{{Citation needed|date=June 2016}}


=== Middle Ages ===
Although the Israelites were divided into ], the Jews (being one offshoot of the Israelites, another being the ]) are traditionally said to descend mostly from the Israelite tribes of ] (from where the Jews derive their ethnonym) and ], and partially from the tribe of ], who had together formed the ancient ],<ref></ref> and the remnants of the northern ] who migrated to the Kingdom of Judah and assimilated after the 720s BCE, when the Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |url=https://books.google.com/?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PA174&dq=the+main+reasons+behind+this+expansion+was+the+immigration+of+Israelites+who+came+to+Judah+from+the+Northern+Kingdom+after+the+fall+of+Samaria+in+721+BCE#v=onepage&q=the%20main%20reasons%20behind%20this%20expansion%20was%20the%20immigration%20of%20Israelites%20who%20came%20to%20Judah%20from%20the%20Northern%20Kingdom%20after%20the%20fall%20of%20Samaria%20in%20721%20BCE&f=false |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2001 |page=174 |isbn=1-84127-201-9}}</ref>
{{further|History of the Jews in Europe|History of European Jews in the Middle Ages|Mizrahi Jews|Sephardi Jews}}
Jewish diaspora communities are generally described to have ] into three major ] according to where their ancestors settled: the '']'' (initially in the Rhineland and France), the '']'' (initially in the ]), and the '']'' (] and ]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel |title=Jewish society through the ages |publisher=Schocken Books |year=1972 |editor=Ettinger, Samuel |oclc=581911264 |orig-year=1969}}</ref> ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and other groups also predated the arrival of the Sephardic diaspora.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/simo10796 |title=The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times |date=2002 |publisher=Columbia University Press |jstor=10.7312/simo10796 }}</ref>


Despite experiencing repeated waves of persecution, Ashkenazi Jews in Western Europe worked in a variety of fields, making an impact on their communities' economy and societies. In ], for example, figures like ] and ] occupied prominent social and economic positions. However, Jews were frequently the subjects of discriminatory laws, ], ]s and ]s, which culminated in events like the ] (1066) and the ] (1290). As a result, Ashkenazi Jews were gradually pushed eastwards to ], ] and ].<ref>Harshav, Benjamin (1999). ''The Meaning of Yiddish''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. "From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the center of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow."</ref>
Israelites enjoyed political independence twice in ], first during the periods of the ] followed by the ].{{disputed inline|United Monarchy|date=February 2016}} After the fall of the United Monarchy the land was divided into ] and ]. The term Jew originated from the Roman "Judean" and denoted someone from the southern kingdom of Judah.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/?id=zese2C-fDTEC&pg=PA41&dq=when+was+the+term+jew+first+used#v=onepage&q=when%20was%20the%20term%20jew%20first%20used&f=false| title = Teaching Jewish History| authors= Julia Phillips Berger, Sue Parker Gerson | publisher = Behrman House, Inc| page = 41| year = 2006| isbn = 9780867051834}}</ref> The shift of ] from "Israelites" to "Jews" (inhabitant of Judah), although not contained in the ], is made explicit in the ] (4th century BCE),<ref>''The people and the faith of the Bible'' by André Chouraqui, Univ of Massachusetts Press, 1975, p. 43 </ref> a book in the ], the third section of the Jewish ]. In 587 BC ], King of the ], ], destroyed the ], and deported the most prominent citizens of Judah.<ref>The Hebrews: A Learning Module from Washington State University, © Richard Hooker, reprinted by permission by the '']'' under </ref> In 586 BC, Judah itself ceased to be an independent kingdom, and its remaining Jews were left ]. The ] ended in 539 BCE when the ] conquered Babylon and ] allowed the exiled Jews to return to ] and rebuild their Temple. The ] was completed in 515 BCE. Yehud province was a peaceful part of the Achaemenid Empire until the fall of the Empire in c. 333 BCE to ]. Jews were also politically independent during the ] spanning from 140 to 37 BCE and to some degree under the ] from 37 BCE to 6 CE. Since the ] of the ] in 70 CE, most Jews have lived in ].<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 82.</ref> As an ] in every country in which they live (except ]), they have frequently experienced ] throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}


During the same period, Jewish communities in the Middle East thrived under Islamic rule, especially in cities like ], ], and ]. In Babylonia, from the 7th to 11th centuries the ] and ] academies led the Arab and to an extant the entire Jewish world. The deans and students of said academies defined the ] in Jewish history.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GAON – JewishEncyclopedia.com |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6511-gaon |access-date=23 June 2020 |website=www.jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> Following this period were the ] who lived from the 11th to 15th centuries. Like their European counterparts, Jews in the Middle East and North Africa also faced periods of persecution and discriminatory policies, with the ] in ] and ] issuing forced conversion decrees, causing Jews such as ] to seek safety in other regions.
] show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the ], and that they bear their strongest resemblance to the peoples of the ].<ref name=WhoAreTheJews>{{cite web|url=http://ftp.beitberl.ac.il/~bbsite/misc/ezer_anglit/klali/05_123.pdf|title=Who are the Jews?|author=Jared Diamond|year=1993|accessdate=8 November 2010}} Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/97/12/6769.full|title=Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes|accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora|first=Nicholas|last=Wade|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/09/science/y-chromosome-bears-witness-to-story-of-the-jewish-diaspora.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=9 May 2000|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common genetic pool dating back 4,000 years, as a marker of their common ancestral origin. Despite their long-term separation, Jewish communities maintained commonalities in culture, tradition, and language.<ref>Genes, Behavior, and the Social Environment:: Moving Beyond the Nature ...By Committee on Assessing Interactions Among Social, Behavioral, and Genetic Factors in Health, Board on Health Sciences Policy, Institute of Medicine, Lyla M. Hernandez P:100 https://books.google.com/books?id=gFtYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT116&dq=the+importance+of+ancestral+origin+box+5-1&hl=en&sa=X&ei=P8HeVP-lGoXAPMqsgcgC&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=the%20importance%20of%20ancestral%20origin</ref>


Initially, under ], Jews in the Iberian Peninsula faced persecutions, but their circumstances changed dramatically under ]. During this period, they thrived in a ], marked by significant intellectual and cultural contributions in fields such as philosophy, medicine, and literature by figures such as ], ] and ]. However, in the 12th to 15th centuries, the Iberian Peninsula witnessed a rise in antisemitism, leading to persecutions, anti-Jewish laws, massacres and forced conversions (]), and the establishment of the ] that same year. After the completion of the ] and the issuance of the ] by the ] in 1492, the Jews of Spain were forced to choose: convert to Christianity or be expelled. As a result, around 200,000 Jews were ], seeking refuge in places such as the ], ], ], the ] and ]. A ] awaited the Jews of Portugal a few years later. Some Jews chose to remain, and pretended to practice ]. These Jews would form the members of ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schloss |first=Chaim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OV9jKGJzg3QC |title=2000 Years of Jewish History: From the Destruction of the Second Bais Hamikdash Until the Twentieth Century |date=2002 |publisher=Feldheim Publishers |isbn=978-1-58330-214-9 |language=en}}</ref>
==Judaism==
{{Main article|Judaism}}
The Jewish ] and the ] of ] are strongly interrelated. ] typically have a status within the Jewish ''ethnos'' equal to those born into it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/beliefs/conversion.shtml |title=BBC Religions/Converting to Judaism: "A person who converts to Judaism becomes a Jew in every sense of the word, and is just as Jewish as someone born into Judaism." |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |accessdate=2 October 2013}}</ref> However, several converts to Judaism, as well as ex-Jews, have claimed that converts are treated as second-class Jews by many of the born-Jews.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.interfaithfamily.com/spirituality/conversion/Are_Converts_Treated_as_Second_Class.shtml |title=Are Converts Treated as Second Class? |work=]}}</ref>
Conversion is not encouraged by mainstream Judaism, and is considered a difficult task. A significant portion of conversions are undertaken by children of mixed marriages, or by would-be or current spouses of Jews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/paul-golin/the-complicated-relations_b_842806.html |title=Paul Golin: The Complicated Relationship Between Intermarriage and Jewish Conversion |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |accessdate=2 October 2013}}</ref>


=== Modern period ===
The ], a religious interpretation of the traditions and early national history of the Jews, established the first of the ], which are now practiced by 54% of the world. ] guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life,"<ref>Neusner (1991) p. 64</ref> which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, ], and ] rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient ] world,<ref>{{cite book|last=Patai|first=Raphael|authorlink=Raphael Patai|title=]|year=1996|origyear=1977|publisher=Wayne State University Press|location=Detroit|isbn=0-8143-2651-X|page=7}}</ref> in Europe before and after ] (see ]),<ref>{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Lonnie R.|title=Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends|year=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-510071-9|page=145}}</ref> in ],<ref name=Sharot2930>Sharot (1997), pp. 29–30.</ref> in ] and the ],<ref name=Sharot2930 /> ],<ref>Sharot (1997), pp. 42–3.</ref> ],<ref>Sharot (1997), p. 42.</ref> or the contemporary ]<ref>{{cite book|last=Fishman|first=Sylvia Barack|title=Jewish Life and American Culture|year=2000|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, N.Y.|isbn=0-7914-4546-1|page=38}}</ref> and ],<ref>{{cite book|last=Kimmerling|first=Baruch|title=The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers|year=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, N.Y.|isbn=0-88706-849-9|page=169}}</ref> cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different ]s unique to their own communities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lowenstein|first=Steven M.|title=The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-513425-7|page=228}}</ref>
{{further|Zionism|The Holocaust|History of Israel (1948–present)|}}
In the 19th century, when Jews in ] were increasingly granted ], Jews in the ] faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread ]s. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in ] and ] as a national revival movement, aiming to re-establish a Jewish polity in the Land of Israel, an endeavor to restore the Jewish people back to their ancestral homeland in order to stop the exoduses and persecutions that have plagued their history. This led to waves of Jewish migration to ]. ], who is considered the father of political Zionism,<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Kornberg|1993}} "How did Theodor Herzl, an assimilated German nationalist in the 1880s, suddenly in the 1890s become the founder of Zionism?"</ref> offered his vision of a future Jewish state in his 1896 book '']'' (''The Jewish State''); a year later, he presided over the ].<ref>{{cite web |date=21 July 2005 |title=Chapter One |url=http://www.jewishagency.org/israel/content/23396 |access-date=21 September 2015 |website=The Jewish Agency for Israel1 |archive-date=10 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210124104/http://www.jewishagency.org/israel/content/23396 |url-status=dead }}</ref>


The antisemitism that inflicted Jewish communities in Europe also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the ] between 1881 and 1924.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lewin |first=Rhoda G. |date=1979 |title=Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis |url=http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Minnesota History |volume=46 |issue=7 |page=259 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2020 |access-date=10 August 2020}}</ref> The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were ] and ]. Many ] winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.<ref name="Jewish Nobel Prize Winners">{{cite web |title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners |url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html |archive-date=24 December 2018 |access-date=7 October 2011 |publisher=jinfo.org}}</ref>[[File:Jewish people around the world.svg|thumb|Map of the Jewish diaspora:<br>
==Babylon and Rome==
{{Legend|#000000|Israel}}
After the destruction of the Second Temple Judaism lost much of its sectarian nature. Nevertheless, a significant ] remained, centered in ], at the time the largest urban Jewish community in the world. Hellenism was a force not just in the Diaspora but also in the Land of Israel over a long period of time. Generally, scholars view Rabbinic Judaism as having been meaningfully influenced by Hellenism.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}
{{Legend|#00216bff|+ 1,000,000}}
{{Legend|#0038b8ff|+ 100,000}}
{{Legend|#578bffff|+ 10,000}}
{{Legend|#b3cbffff|+ 1,000}}|301x301px]]When ] and the ] came to power in ] in 1933, the situation for Jews deteriorated rapidly. Many Jews fled from Europe to ], the United States, and the ] as a result of racial anti-Semitic laws, economic difficulties, and the fear of an impending war. ] started in 1939, and by 1941, Hitler occupied almost all of Europe. Following the ] in 1941, the ]—an extensive, organized effort with an unprecedented scope intended to annihilate the Jewish people—began, and resulted in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and ]. In Poland, three million were murdered in ] in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the ] camp complex alone. The ] is the name given to this genocide, in which six million Jews were systematically murdered.


Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On 14 May 1948, upon the termination of the mandate, ] declared the creation of the ], a ] in the Land of Israel. Immediately afterwards, all neighboring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed ] resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of ] from all over the world.
Without a Temple, Greek speaking Jews no longer looked to Jerusalem in the way they had before. Judaism separated into a linguistically Greek and a Hebrew / Aramaic sphere.<ref name="Ehrlich">{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/?id=NoPZu79hqaEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=jewish+diaspora#v=onepage&q=jewish%20diaspora&f=false| title = Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1 |editor= Mark Avrum Ehrlich | publisher = ABC-CLIO| year = 2009| isbn = 9781851098736 }}</ref>{{rp| 8–11}} The theology and religious texts of each community were distinctively different.<ref name="Ehrlich"/>{{rp| 11–13}} Hellenized Judaism never developed yeshivas to study the Oral Law. Rabbinic Judaism (centered in the Land of Israel and Babylon) almost entirely ignores the Hellenized Diaspora in its writings.<ref name="Ehrlich"/>{{rp| 13–14 }} Hellenized Judaism eventually disappeared as its practitioners assimilated into Greco-Roman culture, leaving a strong Rabbinic eastern Diaspora with large centers of learning in Babylon.<ref name="Ehrlich"/>{{rp| 14–16}}


== Culture ==
By the first century, the Jewish community in ], to which Jews were exiled after the Babylonian conquest as well as after the ] in 135 CE, already held a speedily growing<ref name="Translation 1981, pg. 95"></ref> between the years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from the ], making up about one-sixth of the world Jewish population at that era.<ref name="Solomon Gryazel p. 137" /> The 13th-century author ] gave a figure of 6,944,000 Jews in the Roman world ] considered the figure convincing.<ref name="Baron">{{cite book | title = A Social and Religious History of the Jews, by Salo Wittmayer Baron ... Volume 1 of A Social and Religious History of the Jews| author = Salo Wittmayer Baron | publisher = Columbia University Press | page = 132 | year = 1937 }}</ref> The figure of seven million within and one million outside the Roman world in the mid-first century became widely accepted, including by ]. However, contemporary scholars now accept that Bar Hebraeus based his figure on a census of total Roman citizens. The figure of 6,944,000 being recorded in ].<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/?id=RQgW9NMML4wC&pg=PA104&lpg=PA104&dq=roman+empire+jews+8+million#v=onepage&q=roman%20empire%20jews%208%20million&f=false| title = Jews in the Hellenistic and Roman Cities |pages = 90, 94, 104–105| year = 2002 | publisher = Routledge. London and New york| isbn = 9780203446348 }}</ref><ref name="Rutgers">{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/?id=r5yvfbc2W5UC&pg=PA202&lpg=PA202&dq=bar+hebraeus+first+century#v=onepage&q=bar%20hebraeus%20first%20century&f=false| title = The Hidden Heritage of Diaspora Judaism: Volume 20 of Contributions to biblical exegesis and theology | author = Leonard Victor Rutgers| publisher = Peeters Publishers | page = 202|year = 1998| isbn = 9789042906662 }}</ref> Louis Feldman, previously an active supporter of the figure, now states that he and Baron were mistaken.<ref name="Feldman">{{cite book | title = Judaism And Hellenism Reconsidered | author = Louis H. Feldman| publisher = BRILL| year = 2006}}</ref>{{rp| 185}} Feldman's views on active Jewish missionizing have also changed. While viewing classical Judaism as being receptive to converts, especially from the second century BCE through the first century CE, he points to a lack of either missionizing tracts or records of the names of rabbis who sought converts, as evidence for the lack of active Jewish missionizing.<ref name="Feldman"/>{{rp| 205–206}} Feldman maintains that conversion to Judaism was common and the Jewish population was large both within the Land of Israel and in the Diaspora.<ref name="Feldman"/>{{rp| 183–203, 206}} Other historians believe that conversion during the Roman era was limited in number and did not account for much of the Jewish population growth, due to various factors such as the illegality of male conversion to Judaism in the Roman world from the mid-second century. Another factor that made conversion difficult in the Roman world was the halakhic requirement of ], a requirement that proselytizing ]. The ], a tax imposed on Jews in 70 CE and relaxed to exclude ]s in 96 CE, also limited Judaism's appeal.<ref name="docs.google.com">{{cite web|url=https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Ib2suAQgXxDFZ5zLdag9DMTFCaDPkJrDwResH1I_J4I/edit |work=The Times Literary Supplement|title=Secta and natio|first=MARTIN|last= GOODMAN|publisher=Docs.google.com |date=26 February 2010 |accessdate=2 October 2013}}</ref>
{{Main|Jewish culture}}


==Who is a Jew?== === Religion ===
{{Main|Judaism}}
{{Main article|Who is a Jew?|Jewish identity}}
{{See also|Jewish atheism|Jewish secularism}}
] shares some of the characteristics of a ], an ],<ref name="Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group" /> a ], and a ], making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chabad.org/45132 |title=What Makes a Jew Jewish? |publisher=Chabad.org |accessdate=2 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/whojew1.html|title=Who is a Jew?|accessdate=6 October 2007|last=Weiner|first=Rebecca|year=2007|publisher=]}}</ref> Generally, in modern secular usage Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly ]), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally ] and therefore are followers of the religion.<ref>{{cite book|title=World Religions: An Introduction for Students|last=Fowler|first=Jeaneane D.|year=1997|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=1-898723-48-6|page=7}}</ref>
{{Judaism}}
The Jewish ] and the ] of ] are strongly interrelated. ] typically have a status within the Jewish ''ethnos'' equal to those born into it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/beliefs/conversion.shtml |title=BBC Religions/Converting to Judaism: "A person who converts to Judaism becomes a Jew in every sense of the word, and is just as Jewish as someone born into Judaism." |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |access-date=2 October 2013}}</ref> However, several converts to Judaism, as well as ex-Jews, have claimed that converts are treated as second-class Jews by many born Jews.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.interfaithfamily.com/spirituality/conversion/Are_Converts_Treated_as_Second_Class.shtml |title=Are Converts Treated as Second Class? |work=InterfaithFamily |date=2 May 2011 |access-date=29 August 2016 |archive-date=8 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808163226/http://www.interfaithfamily.com/spirituality/conversion/Are_Converts_Treated_as_Second_Class.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> Conversion is not encouraged by mainstream Judaism, and it is considered a difficult task. A significant portion of conversions are undertaken by children of mixed marriages, or would-be or current spouses of Jews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/paul-golin/the-complicated-relations_b_842806.html |title=Paul Golin: The Complicated Relationship Between Intermarriage and Jewish Conversion |date=31 March 2011 |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |access-date=2 October 2013}}</ref>


The ], a religious interpretation of the traditions and early history of the Jews, established the first of the ], which are now practiced by 54&nbsp;percent of the world. ] guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life,"<ref>Neusner (1991) p. 64</ref> which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, ], and ] rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient ] world,<ref>{{cite book|last=Patai|first=Raphael|author-link=Raphael Patai|title=]|year=1996|orig-year=1977|publisher=Wayne State University Press|location=Detroit|isbn=0-8143-2651-X|page=7}}</ref> in Europe before and after ] (see ]),<ref>{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Lonnie R.|title=Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends|year=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-510071-9|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716/page/145}}</ref> in ],<ref name=Sharot2930>Sharot (1997), pp. 29–30.</ref> in ] and the ],<ref name=Sharot2930 /> ],<ref>Sharot (1997), pp. 42–43.</ref> ],<ref>Sharot (1997), p. 42.</ref> or the contemporary ]<ref>{{cite book|last=Fishman|first=Sylvia Barack|title=Jewish Life and American Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/jewishlifeameric0000fish|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, N.Y.|isbn=0-7914-4546-1|page=}}</ref> and ],<ref>{{cite book|last=Kimmerling|first=Baruch|title=The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers|url=https://archive.org/details/israelistatesoci00kimm|url-access=limited|year=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, N.Y.|isbn=0-88706-849-9|page=}}</ref> cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, and still others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different ]s unique to their own communities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lowenstein|first=Steven M.|title=The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-513425-7|page=228}}</ref>
Historical definitions of ] have traditionally been based on '']'' definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the ] into the ], around 200 ]. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as ] 7:1–5, by Jewish sages, are used as a warning against ] between Jews and ] because " will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods (i.e., idols) of others." {{bibleref2|Leviticus|24:10}} says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an ] man is "of the community of Israel." This is complemented by {{bibleref2|Ezra|10:2–3}}, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their ] wives and their children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-11.html|title=What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?|accessdate=9 January 2009|date=4 September 2003|publisher=Shamash.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318 |title=What is the source of the law that a child is Jewish only if its mother is Jewish? |accessdate=9 January 2009 |publisher=Torah.org |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224205847/http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318 |archivedate=24 December 2008 }}</ref> Since the anti-religious '']'' movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, ''halakhic'' interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.<ref>Dosick (2007), pp. 56–7.</ref>


=== Languages ===
According to historian ], the status of the offspring of mixed marriages was determined ] in the Bible. He brings two likely explanations for the change in ] times: first, the Mishnah may have been applying the same logic to mixed marriages as it had applied to other mixtures ('']''). Thus, a mixed marriage is forbidden as is the union of a ] and a ], and in both unions the offspring are judged matrilineally.<ref name="J.D. Cohen">{{cite book|author=Shaye J.D. Cohen|year=1999|title=The Beginnings of Jewishness|publisher=U. California Press|pages=305–306|isbn=0-585-24643-2}}</ref> Second, the ] may have been influenced by ], which dictated that when a parent could not contract a legal marriage, ].<ref name="J.D. Cohen" />
{{main|Jewish languages}}


] is the ] of Judaism (termed ''lashon ha-kodesh'', "the holy tongue"), the language in which most of the Hebrew scriptures (]) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the 5th century BCE, ], a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in ].<ref name=Grintz>{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/3264497|title=Hebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Temple|first=Jehoshua M.|last=Grintz|journal=Journal of Biblical Literature|volume=79|issue=1|date=March 1960|pages=32–47|publisher=The Society of Biblical Literature|jstor=3264497}}</ref> By the 3rd century BCE, some Jews of the diaspora were speaking ].<ref>Feldman (2006), p. 54.</ref> Others, such as in the Jewish communities of ], known to Jews as Babylonia, were speaking Hebrew and ], the languages of the ]. Dialects of these same languages were also used by the Jews of ] at that time.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}
==Ethnic divisions==
{{Main article|Jewish ethnic divisions}}
] of late 19th century ] portrayed in '']'' (1878), by ]]]
Within the world's ] there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating ] population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities was established by Jewish settlers in various places around the ], often at great distances from one another, resulting in effective and often long-term isolation. During the ] of the ] the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments: ], ], ], and populational. Today, manifestations of these differences among the Jews can be observed in ] of each community, including ], culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of ].<ref>Dosick (2007), p. 60.</ref>


For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive ]al forms or branches that became independent languages. ] is the Judaeo-German language developed by ] who migrated to ]. ] is the Judaeo-Spanish language developed by ] Jews who migrated to the ]. Due to many factors, including the impact of ] on European Jewry, the ], and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct ] of several communities, including ], ], ], ], ] and many others, have largely fallen out of use.<ref name=Languages />
] Jewish couple from ] in traditional clothing. Photo taken in 1900.]]
Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the '']'' and the '']''. Ashkenazim, or "Germanics" (] meaning "]" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their ] cultural and geographical origins, while Sephardim, or "]" (] meaning "]/]" or "]" in Hebrew), are so named denoting their Spanish/Portuguese Jewish cultural and geographic origins. The more common term in ] for many of those broadly called Sephardim, is '']'' (lit. "Easterners", Mizrach being "East" in Hebrew), that is, in reference to the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews who are often, as a group, referred to collectively as ''Sephardim'' (together with Sephardim proper) for liturgical reasons, although Mizrahi Jewish groups and Sephardi Jews proper are ethnically distinct.<ref>Dosick (2007), p. 59.</ref>


] in the ]. The tombstones are inscribed in Hebrew.]]
Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, ] such as the ], ], ], and ]; the ] of Greece; the ] ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the ] from ]; various ], including most numerously the ] of ]; and ], most notably the ], as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.<ref name=EJ571>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Schmelz|first=Usiel Oscar |author2=Sergio DellaPergola |editor=Fred Skolnik|encyclopedia=]|title=Demography|edition=2d|year=2007|publisher=Thomson Gale|volume=5|location=Farmington Hills, Mich.|isbn=0-02-865928-7|page=571|ref=harv}}</ref>


For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parfitt |first1=T. V. |title=The Use Of Hebrew In Palestine 1800–1822 |journal=Journal of Semitic Studies |date=1972 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=237–252 |doi=10.1093/jss/17.2.237 }}</ref> Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by ], who arrived in ] in 1881. It had not been used as a ] since ] times.<ref name=Grintz /> ] is designated as the "State language" of Israel.<ref>{{cite web |title=Basic Law: Israel – The Nation State Of The Jewish People |url=https://knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/BasicLawNationState.pdf |website=The Knesset |publisher=] of the State of Israel |access-date=3 September 2020 |archive-date=10 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410191721/http://knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basiclawnationstate.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of ]n, ]n, ], and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are no closer related to each other than they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed ''Sephardi'' due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and various others. The ] from ] are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the ] and ] after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.<ref name=EJ571 />
] Jew blows ], 1947]]


Despite efforts to revive Hebrew as the national language of the Jewish people, knowledge of the language is not commonly possessed by Jews worldwide and ] has emerged as the ] of the Jewish diaspora.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0VnB2Jq3fW4C&pg=PA428|title=International Handbook of Jewish Education|author=Nava Nevo|publisher=Springer|year=2001|page=428|quote=In contrast to other peoples who are masters of their national languages, Hebrew is not the 'common possession' of all Jewish people, and it mainly—if not exclusively—lives and breathes in Israel.... Although there are oases of Hebrew in certain schools, it has not become the Jewish lingua franca and English is rapidly taking its place as the Jewish people's language of communication. Even Hebrew-speaking Israeli representatives tend to use English in their public appearances at international Jewish conventions. |isbn=978-94-007-0354-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hEHCW7KnuG8C&pg=PA121|title=Prophets and Profits: Managerialism and the Restructuring of Jewish Schools in South Africa|author=Chaya Herman|publisher=HSRC Press|year=2006|page=121|quote=It is English rather than Hebrew that emerged as the ''lingua franca'' of the Jews towards the late 20th century.... This phenomenon occurred despite efforts to make Hebrew a language of communication, and despite the fact that the teaching of Hebrew was considered the ''raison d'être'' of the Jewish day schools and the 'nerve center' of Jewish learning.|isbn=978-0-7969-2114-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bWmMAgAAQBAJ&q=%22english+as+a+lingua+franca+for+jews+worldwide%22&pg=PA185|title=Negotiating Language Policy in Schools: Educators as Policymakers|author=Elana Shohamy|publisher=Routledge|year=2010|page=185|quote=This priority given to English is related to the special relationship between Israel and the United States, and the current status of English as a ''lingua franca'' for Jews worldwide.|isbn=978-1-135-14621-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUpFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA214|title=Dynamic Belonging: Contemporary Jewish Collective Identities|author=Elan Ezrachi|publisher=Bergahn Books|year=2012|page=214|quote=As Stephen P. Cohen observes: 'English is the language of Jewish universal discourse.'|isbn=978-0-85745-258-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jafi.org.il/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Worldwide+Community/Connecting+to+Community/Jewish+Languages.htm |title=Jewish Languages&nbsp;– How Do We Talk To Each Other? |publisher=] |access-date=5 April 2014 |quote=Only a minority of the Jewish people today can actually speak Hebrew. In order for a Jew from one country to talk to another who speaks a different language, it is more common to use English than Hebrew. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307172019/http://www.jafi.org.il/JewishAgency/English/Jewish%2BEducation/Compelling%2BContent/Worldwide%2BCommunity/Connecting%2Bto%2BCommunity/Jewish%2BLanguages.htm |archive-date=7 March 2014}}</ref> Although many Jews once had sufficient knowledge of Hebrew to study the classic literature, and ] like ] and ] were commonly used as recently as the early 20th century, most Jews lack such knowledge today and English has by and large superseded most Jewish vernaculars.
Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70% of Jews worldwide (and up to 90% prior to ] and ]). As a result of their emigration from Europe, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the ] continents, in countries such as the ], ], ], ], and ]. In ], the immigration of Jews from ] (Sephardim) has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim.<ref name=EJ572>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Schmelz|first=Usiel Oscar |author2=Sergio DellaPergola |editor=Fred Skolnik|encyclopedia=]|title=Demography|edition=2d|year=2007|publisher=Thomson Gale|volume=5|location=Farmington Hills, Mich.|isbn=0-02-865928-7|pages=571–2|ref=harv}}</ref> Only in ] is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a ] independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.<ref>Dosick (2007), p. 61.</ref>
The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English, and ]. Some ], particularly ] and ], are also widely used.<ref name=Languages /> Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language,<ref>Hebrew, Aramaic and the rise of Yiddish. D. Katz. (1985) ''Readings in the sociology of Jewish languages''</ref> but it is far less used today following ] and the adoption of ] by the ] and the ].
In some places, the mother language of the Jewish community differs from that of the general population or the dominant group. For example, in ], the Ashkenazic majority has adopted English, while the Sephardic minority uses French as its primary language.<ref name="forward">{{cite web|url=http://forward.com/articles/5434/quebec-sephardim-make-breakthroughs/|title=Quebec Sephardim Make Breakthroughs |date=2 April 2004 |publisher=forward.com|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYyiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|title=Contemporary Sephardic Identity in the Americas: An Interdisciplinary Approach|author=Edna Aizenberg|year=2012|page=xxii|publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-5165-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fIZ6wftL3oQC&pg=PA449|title=Canada's Jews: A People's Journey|author=Gerald Tulchinsky|pages=447–49|isbn=978-0-8020-9386-8|year=2008|publisher=University of Toronto Press }}</ref> Similarly, ] adopted English rather than ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gbTFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA51|title=Institutions, Ethnicity, and Political Mobilization in South Africa|author=Jessica Piombo|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=51|isbn=978-0-230-62382-8|year= 2009}}</ref> Due to both Czarist and Soviet policies,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TIMoQbjAmhgC&pg=PA31|title=World War I and the Remaking of Jewish Vilna, 1914–1918|author=Andrew Noble Koss (dissertation)|publisher=Stanford University|year=2010|pages=30–31}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ic5Kth7aiusC&pg=PA781|title=Jewish and Non-Jewish Creators of "Jewish Languages"|author=Paul Wexler|chapter=Chapter 38: Evaluating Soviet Yiddish Language Policy Between 1917–1950|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2006|page=780|isbn=978-3-447-05404-1}}</ref> Russian has superseded Yiddish as the language of ], but these policies have also affected neighboring communities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-russian.html|title=Jewish Russian|author=Anna Verschik|publisher=Jewish Languages Research Website|date=25 May 2007|access-date=1 April 2014|archive-date=16 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016171323/http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-russian.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Today, Russian is the first language for many Jewish communities in a number of ], such as ]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoPZu79hqaEC&pg=PA1007|title=Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1|page=1007|isbn=978-1-85109-873-6|last1=Ehrlich|first1=Mark Avrum|year=2009|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref><ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Ukraine: A History, 4th Edition|author=Subtelny, O.|date=2009|publisher=University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division|isbn=978-1-4426-9728-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ktyM07I9HXwC|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=Multicultural Perspectives in Working with Families|author1=Congress, E.P.|author2=Gonzalez, M.J.|date=2005|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8261-3146-1|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780826131454|url-access=registration|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/jerusalem-babylon/.premium-1.579733 |title=The Jews who said 'no' to Putin |author=Anshel Pfeffer |newspaper=Haaretz |date=14 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326082731/http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/jerusalem-babylon/.premium-1.579733 |archive-date=26 March 2014}}</ref> and ],<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary2">{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Bukharan_Jews.html|title=Bukharan Jews &#124; Jewish Virtual Library|publisher=jewishvirtuallibrary.org|access-date=12 March 2015}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}} as well as for Ashkenazic Jews in ],<ref name="Maoz">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_AR3BksrUcC&pg=PA135|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704020626/http://books.google.com/books?id=W_AR3BksrUcC&pg=PA135|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 July 2014|title=Muslim Attitudes towards Jews and Israel|author=Moshe Ma'oz|pages=135, 160|isbn=978-1-84519-527-4|year=2011| publisher=Sussex Academic Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/AZ |title=Azerbaijan |quote=Like many immigrant communities of the Czarist and Soviet eras in Azerbaijan, Ashkenazi Jews appear to be linguistically Russified. Most Ashkenazi Jews speak Russian as their first language with Azeri being spoken as the second.}}</ref> Georgia,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNczHm67tjIC&pg=PA72|title=DNA & Tradition: The Genetic Link to the Ancient Hebrews|author=Yaakov Kleiman|publisher=Devora Publishing|year=2004|page=72|quote=The community is divided between 'native' Georgian Jews and Russian-speaking Ashkenazim who began migrating there at the beginning of the 19th century, and especially during World War II.|isbn=978-1-930143-89-0}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AgkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA165|title=Readings in the Sociology of Jewish Languages|author=Joshua A. Fishman|year=1985|pages=165, 169–74|publisher=Brill Archive |quote=Jews in ] have adopted ] as their first language. The number of Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazic Jews in that region is comparatively low (cf. 2,905 in 1979). Both Ashkenazic and Oriental Jews have assimilated to Russian, the number of Jews speaking Russian as their first language amounting to a total of 6,564. It is reasonable to assume that the percentage of assimilated Ashkenazim is much higher than the portion of Oriental Jews.|isbn=90-04-07237-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idAfAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72|title=Language in Ethnicity: A View of Basic Ecological Relations|author=Harald Haarmann|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1986|pages=70–73, 79–82|isbn=978-3-11-086280-5}}</ref> Although communities in ] today are small and dwindling, Jews there had shifted from a multilingual group to a monolingual one (or nearly so), speaking French in ],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4Mp4qy8lbUC&pg=PA234|title=Transnational Spaces and Identities in the Francophone World|page=234|isbn=978-0-8032-2465-0|last1=Gafaiti|first1=Hafid|year=2009|publisher=U of Nebraska Press }}</ref> ],<ref name="Maoz" /> and the city of ],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=45exFa6wDIIC&pg=PA258|title=Jewish Culture and Society in North Africa|pages=258, 270|isbn=978-0-253-00146-7|last1=Gottreich|first1=Emily Benichou|last2=Schroeter|first2=Daniel J|year= 2011|publisher=Indiana University Press }}</ref><ref name="jdc">{{cite web|url=http://www.jdc.org/where-we-work/africa/tunisia.html|title=Tunisia|publisher=jdc.org|access-date=12 March 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016211752/http://www.jdc.org/where-we-work/africa/tunisia.html|archive-date=16 October 2013}}</ref> while most North Africans continue to use ] or Berber as their mother tongue.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}


==Languages== === Leadership ===
{{Main article|Jewish languages}} {{main|Jewish leadership}}
]'s (right to left) ]-]-]-] dictionary (1542) contains a list of nations, including an entry for Jew: {{lang-he|יְהוּדִי}}, {{lang-yi|יוּד}}, {{lang-de|Jud}}, {{lang-la|Iudaeus}}]]
] is the ] of Judaism (termed ''lashon ha-kodesh'', "the holy tongue"), the language in which most of the Hebrew scriptures (]) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the 5th century BCE, ], a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in ].<ref name=Grintz>{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/3264497|title=Hebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Temple|first=Jehoshua M.|last=Grintz|journal=Journal of Biblical Literature|volume=79|issue=1|date=March 1960|pages=32–47|publisher=The Society of Biblical Literature|jstor=3264497|ref=harv}}</ref> By the 3rd century BCE, some Jews of the diaspora were speaking ].<ref>Feldman (2006), p. 54.</ref> Others, such as in the Jewish communities of Babylonia, were speaking Hebrew and Aramaic, the languages of the ]. These languages were also used by the Jews of Israel at that time.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}


There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eisenstadt|first=S.N.|title=Explorations in Jewish Historical Experience: The Civilizational Dimension|url=https://archive.org/details/explorationsjewi00eise|url-access=limited|year=2004|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|isbn=90-04-13693-2|page=}}</ref> Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Hal M.|title=From Sanctuary to Boardroom: A Jewish Approach to Leadership|year=2006|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=0-7425-5229-2|page=1}}</ref> Today, many countries have a ] who serves as a representative of that country's Jewry. Although many ] follow a certain hereditary ], there is no one commonly accepted leader of all Hasidic Jews. Many Jews believe that the ] will act a unifying leader for Jews and the entire world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Messiah – Key beliefs in Judaism – GCSE Religious Studies Revision – Eduqas|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zjbyb82/revision/5|access-date=20 August 2022|website=BBC Bitesize|language=en-GB}}</ref>
For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive ]al forms or branches that became independent languages. ] is the Judæo-German language developed by ] who migrated to ]. ] is the Judæo-Spanish language developed by ] Jews who migrated to the ]. Due to many factors, including the impact of ] on European Jewry, the ], and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct ] of several communities, including ], ], ], ], ] and many others, have largely fallen out of use.<ref name=Languages />


===Theories on ancient Jewish national identity===
For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Parfitt|first1=T. V.|doi=10.1093/jss/17.2.237|title=The Use Of Hebrew In Palestine 1800–1822|journal=Journal of Semitic Studies|volume=17|issue=2|pages=237–52|year=1972|url=http://jss.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/2/237.full.pdf+html|ref=harv}}</ref> Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by ], who arrived in ] in 1881. It had not been used as a ] since ] times.<ref name=Grintz /> ] is now one of the two official languages of the State of Israel along with ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/EDC6CB3D-73EE-43BD-9CDC-ED4EFF8A4008/0/usisrael_pub.pdf |title=Israel and the United States: Friends, Partners, Allies |accessdate=2 April 2012 |publisher=] |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013070200/http://www.mfa.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/EDC6CB3D-73EE-43BD-9CDC-ED4EFF8A4008/0/usisrael_pub.pdf |archivedate=13 October 2011 }}</ref>
]


A number of modern scholars of nationalism support the existence of Jewish national identity in antiquity. One of them is David Goodblatt,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.ucsd.edu/people/faculty/goodblatt.html|title=David Goodblatt|website=history.ucsd.edu}}</ref> who generally believes in the existence of nationalism before the modern period. In his view, the Bible, the parabiblical literature and the Jewish national history provide the base for a Jewish collective identity. Although many of the ancient Jews were illiterate (as were their neighbors), their national narrative was reinforced through public readings. The Hebrew language also constructed and preserved national identity. Although it was not widely spoken after the 5th century BCE, Goodblatt states:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodblatt |first=David |url=https://www.google.co.il/books/edition/Elements_of_Ancient_Jewish_Nationalism/afEhCsbbFlgC |title=Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-46057-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bakhos |first=Carol |date=2007 |title=Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism |url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2007/2007.10.56/ |journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review}}</ref><ref>Adam L. Porter, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209082632/http://jhsonline.org/reviews/reviews_new/review357.htm|date=9 February 2020}}, in Journal of Hebrew Scriptures – Volume 9 (2009)</ref>
Despite efforts to revive Hebrew as the national language of the Jewish people, knowledge of the language is not commonly possessed by Jews worldwide and ] has emerged as the ] of the Jewish diaspora.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0VnB2Jq3fW4C&pg=PA428&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=International Handbook of Jewish Education|author=Nava Nevo|publisher=Springer|year=2001|page=428|quote=In contrast to other peoples who are masters of their national languages, Hebrew is not the 'common possession' of all Jewish people, and it mainly—if not exclusively—lives and breathes in Israel.... Although there are oases of Hebrew in certain schools, it has not become the Jewish lingua franca and English is rapidly taking its place as the Jewish people's language of communication. Even Hebrew-speaking Israeli representatives tend to use English in their public appearances at international Jewish conventions.|isbn=9789400703544}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hEHCW7KnuG8C&pg=PA121#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Prophets and Profits: Managerialism and the Restructuring of Jewish Schools in South Africa|author=Chaya Herman|publisher=HSRC Press|year=2006|page=121|quote=It is English rather than Hebrew that emerged as the ''lingua franca'' of the Jews towards the late 20th century.... This phenomenon occurred despite efforts to make Hebrew a language of communication, and despite the fact that the teaching of Hebrew was considered the ''raison d'être'' of the Jewish day schools and the 'nerve center' of Jewish learning.|isbn=9780796921147}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=bWmMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA185&dq=%22english+as+a+lingua+franca+for+jews+worldwide%22#v=onepage&q=%22english%20as%20a%20lingua%20franca%20for%20jews%20worldwide%22&f=false|title=Negotiating Language Policy in Schools: Educators as Policymakers|author=Elana Shohamy|publisher=Routledge|year=2010|page=185|quote=This priority given to English is related to the special relationship between Israel and the United States, and the current status of English as a ''lingua franca'' for Jews worldwide.|isbn=9781135146214}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUpFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA214#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Dynamic Belonging: Contemporary Jewish Collective Identities|author=Elan Ezrachi|publisher=Bergahn Books|year=2012|page=214|quote=As Stephen P. Cohen observes: 'English is the language of Jewish universal discourse.'|isbn=9780857452580}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jafi.org.il/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Worldwide+Community/Connecting+to+Community/Jewish+Languages.htm |title=Jewish Languages&nbsp;— How Do We Talk To Each Other? |publisher=] |accessdate=5 April 2014 |quote=Only a minority of the Jewish people today can actually speak Hebrew. In order for a Jew from one country to talk to another who speaks a different language, it is more common to use English than Hebrew. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307172019/http://www.jafi.org.il/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Worldwide+Community/Connecting+to+Community/Jewish+Languages.htm |archivedate=7 March 2014 }}</ref> Although many Jews once had sufficient knowledge of Hebrew to study the classic literature, and ] like ] and ] were commonly used as recently as the early 20th century, most Jews lack such knowledge today and English has by and large superseded most Jewish vernaculars.
The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English, and ]. Some ], particularly ] and ], are also widely used.<ref name=Languages /> Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language,<ref>Hebrew, Aramaic and the rise of Yiddish. D. Katz. (1985) ''Readings in the sociology of Jewish languages'</ref> but it is far less used today following ] and the adoption of ] by the ] and the ].
In some places, the mother language of the Jewish community differs from that of the general population or the dominant group. For example, in ], the Ashkenazic majority has adopted English, while the Sephardic minority uses French as its primary language.<ref name="forward">{{cite web|url=http://forward.com/articles/5434/quebec-sephardim-make-breakthroughs/|title=Quebec Sephardim Make Breakthroughs – Forward.com|publisher=forward.com|accessdate=12 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary">{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Quebec.html|title=Quebec, Canada &#124; Jewish Virtual Library|publisher=jewishvirtuallibrary.org|accessdate=12 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYyiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR22#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Contemporary Sephardic Identity in the Americas: An Interdisciplinary Approach|author=Edna Aizenberg|year=2012|page=xxii|isbn=9780815651659}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fIZ6wftL3oQC&pg=PA449#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Canada's Jews: A People's Journey|author=Gerald Tulchinsky|pages=447–49|isbn=9780802093868|year=2008}}</ref> Similarly, ] adopted English rather than ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gbTFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Institutions, Ethnicity, and Political Mobilization in South Africa|author=Jessica Piombo|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|page=51|isbn=9780230623828|date=3 August 2009}}</ref> Due to both Czarist and Soviet policies,<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TIMoQbjAmhgC&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=World War I and the Remaking of Jewish Vilna, 1914–1918|author=Andrew Noble Koss (dissertation)|publisher=Stanford University|year=2010|pages=30–31}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ic5Kth7aiusC&pg=PA781#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Jewish and Non-Jewish Creators of "Jewish Languages"|author=Paul Wexler|chapter=Chapter 38: Evaluating Soviet Yiddish Language Policy Between 1917–1950|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2006|page=780|isbn=9783447054041}}</ref> Russian has superseded Yiddish as the language of ], but these policies have also affected neighboring communities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-russian.html|title=Jewish Russian|author=Anna Verschik|publisher=Jewish Languages Research Website|date=25 May 2007}}</ref> Today, Russian is the first language for many Jewish communities in a number of ], such as ]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoPZu79hqaEC&pg=PA1007#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1|page=1007|isbn=9781851098736|author1=Ehrlich|first1=Mark Avrum|year=2009}}</ref><ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Ukraine: A History, 4th Edition|author=Subtelny, O.|date=2009|publisher=University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division|isbn=978-1-4426-9728-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ktyM07I9HXwC|accessdate=12 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=Multicultural Perspectives in Working with Families|author1=Congress, E.P.|author2=Gonzalez, M.J.|date=2005|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8261-3146-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eujRZg308isC|accessdate=12 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/jerusalem-babylon/.premium-1.579733 |title=The Jews who said 'no' to Putin |author=Anshel Pfeffer |publisher=''Haaretz'' |date=14 March 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326082731/http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/jerusalem-babylon/.premium-1.579733 |archivedate=26 March 2014 }}</ref> and ],<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary2">{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Bukharan_Jews.html|title=Bukharan Jews &#124; Jewish Virtual Library|publisher=jewishvirtuallibrary.org|accessdate=12 March 2015}}</ref> as well as for Ashkenazic Jews in ],<ref name="Maoz">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_AR3BksrUcC&pg=PA135#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Muslim Attitudes towards Jews and Israel|author=Moshe Ma'oz|pages=135, 160|isbn=9781845195274|year=2011}}</ref> Georgia,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNczHm67tjIC&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=DNA & Tradition: The Genetic Link to the Ancient Hebrews|author=Yaakov Kleiman|publisher=Devora Publishing|year=2004|page=72|quote=The community is divided between 'native' Georgian Jews and Russian-speaking Ashkenazim who began migrating there at the beginning of the 19th century, and especially during World War II.|isbn=9781930143890}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AgkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA165#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Readings in the Sociology of Jewish Languages|author=Joshua A. Fishman|year=1985|pages=165, 169–74|quote=Jews in ] have adopted ] as their first language. The number of Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazic Jews in that region is comparatively low (cf. 2,905 in 1979). Both Ashkenazic and Oriental Jews have assimilated to Russian, the number of Jews speaking Russian as their first language amounting to a total of 6,564. It is reasonable to assume that the percentage of assimilated Ashkenazim is much higher than the portion of Oriental Jews.|isbn=9004072373}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idAfAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Language in Ethnicity: A View of Basic Ecological Relations|author=Harald Haarmann|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1986|pages=70–73, 79–82|isbn=9783110862805}}</ref> Although communities in ] today are small and dwindling, Jews there had shifted from a multilingual group to a monolingual one (or nearly so), speaking French in ],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4Mp4qy8lbUC&pg=PA234&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Transnational Spaces and Identities in the Francophone World|page=234|isbn=0803224656|author1=Gafaiti|first1=Hafid|date=1 July 2009}}</ref> ],<ref name="Maoz" /> and the city of ],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=45exFa6wDIIC&pg=PA258#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Jewish Culture and Society in North Africa|pages=258, 270|isbn=0253001463|author1=Gottreich|first1=Emily Benichou|last2=Schroeter|first2=Daniel J|date=1 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="jdc">{{cite web|url=http://www.jdc.org/where-we-work/africa/tunisia.html|title=Tunisia &#124; JDC|publisher=jdc.org|accessdate=12 March 2015}}</ref> while most North Africans continue to use ] as their mother tongue.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}


{{Blockquote|the mere presence of the language in spoken or written form could invoke the concept of a Jewish national identity. Even if one knew no Hebrew or was illiterate, one could recognize that a group of signs was in Hebrew script. ... It was the language of the Israelite ancestors, the national literature, and the national religion. As such it was inseparable from the national identity. Indeed its mere presence in visual or aural medium could invoke that identity.}}
==Genetic studies==
{{Main article|Genetic studies on Jews}}
] studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths.<ref name="hammer2000">{{cite journal|vauthors=Hammer MF, Redd AJ, Wood ET |title=Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=12|pages=6769–6774|date=June 2000|pmid=10801975|pmc=18733|doi=10.1073/pnas.100115997|bibcode=2000PNAS...97.6769H|ref=harv|display-authors=etal}}</ref> In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly ]ern. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in ], ] and the French ]. This is consistent with Jewish traditions in placing most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East.<ref name="Nebel 2001">{{cite journal|author1=Nebel Almut |author2=Filon Dvora |author3=Brinkmann Bernd |author4=Majumder Partha P. |author5=Faerman Marina |author6=Oppenheim Ariella |year=2001|title=The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=69|issue=5| pages=1095–112|pmc=1274378|pmid=11573163|doi=10.1086/324070|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>Molecular Photofitting: Predicting Ancestry and Phenotype Using DNA by Tony Nick Frudakis P:383 </ref>
Conversely, the maternal lineages of Jewish populations, studied by looking at ], are generally more heterogeneous.<ref name="Behar2008b">{{cite journal|author=Behar DM, Metspalu E, Kivisild T|title=Counting the Founders: The Matrilineal Genetic Ancestry of the Jewish Diaspora|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=3|issue=4|pages=e2062|year=2008|pmid=18446216|pmc=2323359|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002062|editor1-last=MacAulay|editor1-first=Vincent|bibcode = 2008PLoSO...3.2062B|ref=harv|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Scholars such as ] and ] believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel.<ref name="Lewontin">{{cite magazine |last=Lewontin |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Lewontin |date=6 December 2012 |title=Is There a Jewish Gene? |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2012/12/06/is-there-a-jewish-gene/ |magazine=New York Review of Books}}</ref> In contrast, Behar has found evidence that about 40% of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin. The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect."<ref name="Behar2008b" /> Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of non-local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews, the authors conclude "Clearly, the differences between Jews and non-Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities. Hence, differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non-Jews are included in the comparisons."<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{cite journal|pmid=20560205|year=2010|last1=Atzmon|first1=G|last2=Hao|first2=L|last3=Pe'Er|first3=I|last4=Velez|first4=C|last5=Pearlman|first5=A|last6=Palamara|first6=PF|last7=Morrow|first7=B|last8=Friedman|first8=E|last9=Oddoux|first9=C|title=Abraham's children in the genome era: Major Jewish diaspora populations comprise distinct genetic clusters with shared Middle Eastern Ancestry|volume=86|issue=6|pages=850–9|pmc=3032072|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v15/n4/full/5201764a.html|doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201764|title=Ashkenazi Jewish mtDNA haplogroup distribution varies among distinct subpopulations: Lessons of population substructure in a closed group|year=2007|last1=Feder|first1=Jeanette|last2=Ovadia|first2=Ofer|last3=Glaser|first3=Benjamin|last4=Mishmar|first4=Dan|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|volume=15|issue=4|pages=498–500|pmid=17245410}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|pmid=23052947|year=2013|last1=Ostrer|first1=H|last2=Skorecki|first2=K|title=The population genetics of the Jewish people|volume=132|issue=2|pages=119–27|doi=10.1007/s00439-012-1235-6|pmc=3543766|journal=Human Genetics}}</ref>


], an historical sociologist considered one of the founders of the ] of ], wrote that the Jews of the late Second Temple period provide "a closer approximation to the ideal type of the ] than perhaps anywhere else in the ancient world." He adds that this observation "must make us wary of pronouncing too readily against the possibility of the nation, and even a form of ], before the onset of modernity."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Anthony D. |title=National Identity |date=1993 |publisher=University of Nevada Press |isbn=978-0-87417-204-1 |edition=Reprint |series=Ethnonationalism in comparative perspective |location=Reno Las Vegas |pages=48–50}}</ref> Agreeing with Smith, Goodblatt suggests omitting the qualifier "religious" from Smith's definition of ancient Jewish nationalism, noting that, according to Smith, a religious component in national memories and culture is common even in the modern era.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Goodblatt |first=David |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/elements-of-ancient-jewish-nationalism/68B5269393825257297A43E197C94A12 |title=Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86202-8 |location=Cambridge |pages=11–12 |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511499067}}</ref> This view is echoed by political scientist ], who writes that "something strangely like modern nationalism is documented for many peoples in medieval times and in classical times as well," citing the ancient Jews as one of several "obvious examples", alongside the ] and the ] and ].<ref>Tom Garvin, "Ethnic Markers, Modern Nationalisms, and the Nightmare of History," in Kruger, ed., ¨ Ethnicity and Nationalism, p. 67.</ref>
Studies of ], which look at the entire DNA mixture, have become increasingly important as the technology develops. They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities, with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common.<ref name="nature.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100603/full/news.2010.277.html|doi=10.1038/news.2010.277
|title=Jews worldwide share genetic ties|year=2010 |first=Alla |last=Katsnelson}}</ref> For Jewish populations of the diaspora, the genetic composition of ], ], and ] Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Behar, the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is "consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient ] and ] residents of the ]" and "the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the ]".<ref name="Behar2010" /> ]n, ] and others of ] origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non-Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular ]), who are closely related, the source of non-Jewish admixture is mainly ]an, while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations and ]ns. Behar ''et al.'' have remarked on an especially close relationship of Ashkenazi Jews and modern ].<ref name="Behar2010" /><ref name=zooss>{{cite journal|journal=Biol Direct |year=2010 |volume=5 |issue=57 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-5-57 |title=The Origin of Eastern European Jews Revealed by Autosomal, Sex Chromosomal and mtDNA Polymorphisms |first=Avshalom |last=Zoossmann-Diskin |pmc=2964539 |pmid=20925954 |url=http://www.biology-direct.com/content/5/1/57 |page=57 |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116090339/http://www.biology-direct.com/content/5/1/57 |archivedate=16 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Did Modern Jews Originate in Italy?|url=http://news.sciencemag.org/biology/2013/10/did-modern-jews-originate-italy|accessdate=21 October 2013|newspaper=]|date=8 October 2013}}</ref> Jews were found to be more closely related to groups in the north of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks, and Armenians) than to Arabs.<ref>{{PubMed |11573163}}</ref>


] suggests that the sources of Jewish national identity and their early nationalist movements in the first and second centuries CE included several key elements: the Bible as both a national history and legal source, the Hebrew language as a national language, a system of law, and social institutions such as schools, synagogues, and Sabbath worship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Millar |first=Fergus |date=1987 |title=Empire, Community and Culture in the Roman near East: Greeks, Syrians, Jews and Arabs |url=https://doi.org/10.18647/1337/JJS-1987 |journal=Journal of Jewish Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=147–148|doi=10.18647/1337/JJS-1987 }}</ref> ] argued that Jews are the "true proto-nation", that through the model of ancient Israel found in the Hebrew Bible, provided the world with the original concept of nationhood which later influenced Christian nations. However, following ] in the first century CE, Jews ceased to be a political entity and did not resemble a traditional nation-state for almost two millennia. Despite this, they maintained their national identity through collective memory, religion and sacred texts, even without land or political power, and remained a nation rather than just an ethnic group, eventually leading to the rise of ] and the establishment of Israel.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hastings |first=Adrian |title=The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-521-59391-3 |location=Cambridge |pages=186–187}}</ref>
The studies also show that persons of ] origin (those who are descendants of the "]" who were ] to ]) throughout today's ] (] and ]) and ] (] and ]), estimated at up to 19.8% of the modern population of Iberia and at least 10% of the modern population of Ibero-America, have ]ish ancestry within the last few centuries. The ] and ] of ], ] of ], and a portion of the ] of ], meanwhile, despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries, also have some more remote ancient Jewish descent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forward.com/articles/155742/jews-are-a-race-genes-reveal/?p=all |title=Jews Are a 'Race,' Genes Reveal&nbsp;– |publisher=Forward.com |accessdate=12 April 2013}}</ref><ref name=discovermagazine>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2010/06/genetics-the-jews-its-still-complicated/ |title=Genetics & the Jews (it's still complicated) : Gene Expression |doi=10.1038/nature09103 |publisher=Blogs.discovermagazine.com |date=10 June 2010 |accessdate=12 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="in.reuters.com">{{cite web|last=Begley |first=Sharon |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/08/06/us-science-genetics-jews-idINBRE8751EI20120806?mlt_click=Master+Sponsor+Logo%28Active%29_19_More+News_sec-col1-m1_News |title=Genetic study offers clues to history of North Africa's Jews &#124; Reuters |publisher=In.reuters.com |accessdate=12 April 2013}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/>


It is believed that Jewish nationalist sentiment in antiquity was encouraged because under foreign rule (Persians, Greeks, Romans) Jews were able to claim that they were an ancient nation. This claim was based on the preservation and reverence of their scriptures, the Hebrew language, the Temple and priesthood, and other traditions of their ancestors.<ref>{{cite journal|author-link1=Steven P. Weitzman | last1 = Weitzman | first1 = Steven | year = 2008| title = On the Political Relevance of Antiquity: A Response to David Goodblatt's Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism | journal = Jewish Social Studies | volume = 14 | issue = 3| page = 168 | jstor = 40207028 }}</ref>
==Demographics==
{{Further information|Jewish population by country}}


== Demographics ==
===Population centers===
{{Main article|Jewish population by urban areas}} {{further|Jewish population by country}}
According to the ] there were 13,421,000 Jews worldwide in 2009, roughly 0.19% of the world's population at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/shnaton61/st02_27.pdf|title=Jewish population in the world and in Israel|publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>


=== Ethnic divisions ===
According to the 2007 estimates of ], the world's Jewish population is 13.2&nbsp;million.<ref name="haaretz.com">{{cite news|title=Percent of world Jewry living in Israel climbed to 41% in 2007|first=Anshel|last=Pfeffer|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/percent-of-world-jewry-living-in-israel-climbed-to-41-in-2007-1.236675|newspaper=Haaretz|date=6 January 2008|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> ] cites figures ranging from 12 to 18&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_408.html|title=Judaism, continued...|work=adherents.com|accessdate=26 August 2015}}</ref> These statistics incorporate both practicing Jews affiliated with ]s and the Jewish community, and approximately 4.5&nbsp;million unaffiliated and ].{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}
{{main|Jewish ethnic divisions}}
] residing in the American colony (photo taken between 1900 and 1920)]]
] couple from ] in traditional clothing. Photo taken in 1900.]]
] blows ], 1947]]


Within the world's ] there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating ] population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities was established by Jewish settlers in various places around the ], often at great distances from one another, resulting in effective and often long-term isolation. During the ] of the ] the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments: ], ], ], and populational. Today, manifestations of these differences among the Jews can be observed in ] of each community, including ], culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of ].<ref>Dosick (2007), p. 60.</ref>
According to ], a demographer of the ], in 2015 there were about 6.3 million Jews in ], 5.7 million in the ], and 2.3 million in the rest of the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4702945,00.html|title=The Jewish people in 2050: 2 very different scenarios|date=|work=ynet}}</ref>

Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the '']'' and the '']''. Ashkenazim are so named in reference to their geographical origins (their ancestors' culture coalesced in the ], an area historically referred to by Jews as ]). Similarly, Sephardim (] meaning "]" in Hebrew) are named in reference their origins in ]. The diverse groups of Jews of the Middle East and North Africa are often collectively referred to as ''Sephardim'' together with Sephardim proper for liturgical reasons having to do with their ]. A common term for many of these non-Spanish Jews who are sometimes still broadly grouped as Sephardim is '']'' (lit. "easterners" in Hebrew). Nevertheless, Mizrahis and Sepharadim are usually ethnically distinct.<ref>Dosick (2007), p. 59.</ref>

Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, ] such as the ], ], ], and ]; the ] of Greece; the ] ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the ] from ]; various ], including most numerously the ] of ]; and ], most notably the ], as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.<ref name=EJ571>{{cite EJ|last=Schmelz|first=Usiel Oscar |first2=Sergio|last2=Della Pergola|title=Demography|volume=5|page=571–572}}</ref>

The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of ]n, ]n, ], and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are no closer related to each other than they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed ''Sephardi'' due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and various others. The ] from ] are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the ] and ] after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.<ref name=EJ571 />

Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70&nbsp;percent of Jews worldwide (and up to 90&nbsp;percent prior to ] and ]). As a result of their ] from ], Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the ] continents, in countries such as the ], ], ], ], and ]. In ], the immigration of Jews from ] (Sephardim) has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim.{{r|EJ571}} Only in ] is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a ] independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.<ref>Dosick (2007), p. 61.</ref>

=== Genetic studies ===
{{main|Genetic studies on Jews}}
] studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths.<ref name="hammer2000">{{cite journal |last1=Hammer |first1=M. F. |last2=Redd |first2=A. J. |last3=Wood |first3=E. T. |last4=Bonner |first4=M. R. |last5=Jarjanazi |first5=H. |last6=Karafet |first6=T. |last7=Santachiara-Benerecetti |first7=S. |last8=Oppenheim |first8=A. |last9=Jobling |first9=M. A. |last10=Jenkins |first10=T. |last11=Ostrer |first11=H. |last12=Bonne-Tamir |first12=B. |title=Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=6 June 2000 |volume=97 |issue=12 |pages=6769–6774 |doi=10.1073/pnas.100115997 |pmid=10801975 |pmc=18733 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.6769H |doi-access=free }}</ref> In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly ]ern. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in ], ], and the French ]. This is consistent with Jewish traditions in placing most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East.<ref name="Nebel 2001">{{cite journal |last1=Nebel |first1=Almut |last2=Filon |first2=Dvora |last3=Brinkmann |first3=Bernd |last4=Majumder |first4=Partha P. |last5=Faerman |first5=Marina |last6=Oppenheim |first6=Ariella |title=The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=November 2001 |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=1095–1112 |doi=10.1086/324070 |pmid=11573163 |pmc=1274378 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Frudakis |first1=Tony |chapter=Ashkezani Jews |page=383 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9vXeydpj7VkC&pg=PA383 |title=Molecular Photofitting: Predicting Ancestry and Phenotype Using DNA |date=19 July 2010 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-055137-1 }}</ref>

Conversely, the maternal lineages of Jewish populations, studied by looking at ], are generally more heterogeneous.<ref name="Behar2008b">{{cite journal |last1=Behar |first1=Doron M. |last2=Metspalu |first2=Ene |last3=Kivisild |first3=Toomas |last4=Rosset |first4=Saharon |last5=Tzur |first5=Shay |last6=Hadid |first6=Yarin |last7=Yudkovsky |first7=Guennady |last8=Rosengarten |first8=Dror |last9=Pereira |first9=Luisa |last10=Amorim |first10=Antonio |last11=Kutuev |first11=Ildus |last12=Gurwitz |first12=David |last13=Bonne-Tamir |first13=Batsheva |last14=Villems |first14=Richard |last15=Skorecki |first15=Karl |title=Counting the Founders: The Matrilineal Genetic Ancestry of the Jewish Diaspora |journal=PLOS ONE |date=30 April 2008 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=e2062 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002062 |pmid=18446216 |pmc=2323359 |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.2062B |doi-access=free }}</ref> Scholars such as ] and Raphael Falk believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel.<ref name="Lewontin">{{Cite journal |last=Lewontin |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Lewontin |date=6 December 2012 |title=Is There a Jewish Gene? |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2012/12/06/is-there-a-jewish-gene/ |journal=New York Review of Books|volume=59 |issue=19 }}</ref> In contrast, Behar has found evidence that about 40&nbsp;percent of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin. The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect."<ref name="Behar2008b" /> Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of non-local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews, the authors conclude "Clearly, the differences between Jews and non-Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities. Hence, differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non-Jews are included in the comparisons."<ref name="Abraham 2010"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Feder |first1=Jeanette |last2=Ovadia |first2=Ofer |last3=Glaser |first3=Benjamin |last4=Mishmar |first4=Dan |title=Ashkenazi Jewish mtDNA haplogroup distribution varies among distinct subpopulations: lessons of population substructure in a closed group |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |date=April 2007 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=498–500 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201764 |pmid=17245410 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Ostrer |first1=Harry |last2=Skorecki |first2=Karl |title=The population genetics of the Jewish people |journal=Human Genetics |date=February 2013 |volume=132 |issue=2 |pages=119–127 |doi=10.1007/s00439-012-1235-6 |pmid=23052947 |pmc=3543766 }}</ref> A study showed that 7% of Ashkenazi Jews have the haplogroup G2c, which is mainly found in ] and on lower scales all major Jewish groups, Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese.<ref>{{cite web | title=Sign In | website=Family Tree DNA | url=https://www.familytreedna.com/sign-in?ReturnUrl=%2Fpdf%2FBehar_contrasting.pdf | access-date=1 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hammer |first1=Michael F. |last2=Behar |first2=Doron M. |last3=Karafet |first3=Tatiana M. |last4=Mendez |first4=Fernando L. |last5=Hallmark |first5=Brian |last6=Erez |first6=Tamar |last7=Zhivotovsky |first7=Lev A. |last8=Rosset |first8=Saharon |last9=Skorecki |first9=Karl |title=Extended Y chromosome haplotypes resolve multiple and unique lineages of the Jewish priesthood |journal=Human Genetics |date=8 August 2009 |volume=126 |issue=5 |pages=707–17 |doi=10.1007/s00439-009-0727-5 |pmid=19669163 |pmc=2771134 }}</ref>

Studies of ], which look at the entire DNA mixture, have become increasingly important as the technology develops. They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities, with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katsnelson |first1=Alla |title=Jews worldwide share genetic ties |journal=Nature |date=3 June 2010 |pages=news.2010.277 |doi=10.1038/news.2010.277 }}</ref> For Jewish populations of the diaspora, the genetic composition of ], ], and ] Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Behar, the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is "consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient ] and ] residents of the ]" and "the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the ]".<ref name="discovermagazine">{{cite journal |last1=Behar |first1=Doron M. |last2=Yunusbayev |first2=Bayazit |last3=Metspalu |first3=Mait |last4=Metspalu |first4=Ene |last5=Rosset |first5=Saharon |last6=Parik |first6=Jüri |last7=Rootsi |first7=Siiri |last8=Chaubey |first8=Gyaneshwer |last9=Kutuev |first9=Ildus |last10=Yudkovsky |first10=Guennady |last11=Khusnutdinova |first11=Elza K. |last12=Balanovsky |first12=Oleg |last13=Semino |first13=Ornella |last14=Pereira |first14=Luisa |last15=Comas |first15=David |last16=Gurwitz |first16=David |last17=Bonne-Tamir |first17=Batsheva |last18=Parfitt |first18=Tudor |last19=Hammer |first19=Michael F. |last20=Skorecki |first20=Karl |last21=Villems |first21=Richard |title=The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people |journal=Nature |date=July 2010 |volume=466 |issue=7303 |pages=238–242 |doi=10.1038/nature09103 |pmid=20531471 |s2cid=4307824 |bibcode=2010Natur.466..238B }}</ref> ]n, ] and others of ] origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non-Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular ]), who are closely related, the source of non-Jewish admixture is mainly ]an, while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations. Behar ''et al.'' have remarked on a close relationship between Ashkenazi Jews and modern ].<ref name="discovermagazine"/><ref name=zooss>{{cite journal |last1=Zoossmann-Diskin |first1=Avshalom |title=The origin of Eastern European Jews revealed by autosomal, sex chromosomal and mtDNA polymorphisms |journal=Biology Direct |date=2010 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=57 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-5-57 |pmid=20925954 |pmc=2964539 |bibcode=2010Sci...328.1342B |doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2001 study found that Jews were more closely related to groups of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks, and Armenians) than to their Arab neighbors, whose genetic signature was found in geographic patterns reflective of Islamic conquests.<ref name="Nebel 2001"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haber |first1=Marc |last2=Gauguier |first2=Dominique |last3=Youhanna |first3=Sonia |last4=Patterson |first4=Nick |last5=Moorjani |first5=Priya |last6=Botigué |first6=Laura R. |last7=Platt |first7=Daniel E. |last8=Matisoo-Smith |first8=Elizabeth |last9=Soria-Hernanz |first9=David F. |last10=Wells |first10=R. Spencer |last11=Bertranpetit |first11=Jaume |last12=Tyler-Smith |first12=Chris |last13=Comas |first13=David |last14=Zalloua |first14=Pierre A. |title=Genome-Wide Diversity in the Levant Reveals Recent Structuring by Culture |journal=PLOS Genetics |date=28 February 2013 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=e1003316 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1003316 |pmid=23468648 |pmc=3585000 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The studies also show that ] (descendants of the "]" who were ] to ]), which comprise up to 19.8&nbsp;percent of the population of today's ] (] and ]) and at least 10&nbsp;percent of the population of ] (] and ]), have Sephardic Jewish ancestry within the last few centuries. The ] and ] of ], ] of ], and a portion of the ] of ], despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries, have also been thought to have some more remote ancient Jewish ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://forward.com/articles/155742/jews-are-a-race-genes-reveal/?p=all |title=Jews Are a 'Race,' Genes Reveal |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=Forward.com |access-date=12 April 2013}}</ref><ref name=discovermagazine/><ref name="in.reuters.com">{{cite news |last1=Begley |first1=Sharon |title=Genetic study offers clues to history of North Africa's Jews |url=https://in.reuters.com/article/us-science-genetics-jews/genetic-study-offers-clues-to-history-of-north-africas-jews-idINBRE8751EI20120806 |work=Reuters |date=6 August 2012 |access-date=12 October 2020 |archive-date=18 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118100801/http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/08/06/us-science-genetics-jews-idINBRE8751EI20120806 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/> Views on the Lemba have changed and genetic ] analyses in the 2000s have established a partially Middle-Eastern origin for a portion of the male Lemba population but have been unable to narrow this down further.<ref name="SpurdleJenkins">{{Citation | title = The origins of the Lemba "Black Jews" of southern Africa: evidence from p12F2 and other Y-chromosome markers. | pmid = 8900243 | pmc=1914832 | volume=59 | issue = 5 | date=November 1996 | journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. | pages=1126–33 | last1 = Spurdle | first1 = AB | last2 = Jenkins | first2 = T}}</ref><ref name="Soodyall">{{cite book|author1=Himla Soodyall|author2=Jennifer G. R Kromberg|editor1-last=Kumar|editor1-first=Dhavendra|editor2-last=Chadwick|editor2-first=Ruth|title=Genomics and Society: Ethical, Legal, Cultural and Socioeconomic Implications|publisher=Academic Press/Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-420195-8|page=316|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E9icBAAAQBAJ&q=Cohen+Modal+Haplotype+Lemba&pg=PA309|chapter=Human Genetics and Genomics and Sociocultural Beliefs and Practices in South Africa|date=29 October 2015}}</ref>

=== Population centers ===
{{main list|Jewish population by city}}
] is home to 960,000 Jews, making it the ] outside of Israel.]]
Although historically, Jews have been found all over the world, in the decades since World War&nbsp;II and the establishment of Israel, they have increasingly concentrated in a small number of countries.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 529, 560–62.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-jew/|title=Jews|date=18 December 2012}}</ref> In 2021, ] and the ] together accounted for over 85 percent of the global Jewish population, with approximately 45.3% and 39.6% of the world's Jews, respectively.<ref name="JDB" /> More than half (51.2%) of world Jewry resides in just ten metropolitan areas. As of 2021, these ten areas were ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. The Tel Aviv metro area has the highest percent of Jews among the total population (94.8%), followed by Jerusalem (72.3%), Haifa (73.1%), and Beersheba (60.4%), the balance mostly being Israeli Arabs. Outside Israel, the highest percent of Jews in a metropolitan area was in New York (10.8%), followed by Miami (8.7%), Philadelphia (6.8%), San Francisco (5.1%), Washington (4.7%), Los Angeles (4.7%), Toronto (4.5%), and Baltimore (4.1%).<ref name="JDB" />

As of 2010, there were nearly 14&nbsp;million Jews around the world, roughly 0.2% of the world's population at the time.<ref name=":6" /> According to the 2007 estimates of ], the world's Jewish population is 13.2&nbsp;million.<ref name="haaretz.com">{{cite news|title=Percent of world Jewry living in Israel climbed to 41% in 2007|first=Anshel|last=Pfeffer|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/percent-of-world-jewry-living-in-israel-climbed-to-41-in-2007-1.236675|newspaper=Haaretz|date=6 January 2008|access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> This statistic incorporates both practicing Jews affiliated with ]s and the Jewish community, and approximately 4.5&nbsp;million unaffiliated and ].{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}

According to ], a demographer of the ], in 2021 there were about 6.8&nbsp;million Jews in Israel, 6&nbsp;million in the United States, and 2.3&nbsp;million in the rest of the world.<ref name="JDB" />


====Israel==== ==== Israel ====
{{Main article|Israeli Jews}} {{main|Israeli Jews}}
], Israel]]
], the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/IranianThreat/News/Article.aspx?id=257112|title='Iran must attack Israel by 2014'|date=9 February 2012|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> Israel was established as an independent ] and Jewish state on 14 May 1948.<ref name="cia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/is.html|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|work=The World Factbook|accessdate=20 July 2007|date=19 June 2007|title=Israel}}</ref> Of the 120 members in its parliament, the ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_beh.htm|publisher=The Knesset|accessdate=8 August 2007|title=The Electoral System in Israel}}</ref> as of 2016, 14 members of the Knesset are ] (not including the Druze), most representing Arab political parties. One of Israel's ] judges is also an Arab citizen of Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2009/israel|title=Israel|work=Freedom in the World|publisher=Freedom House|year=2009}}</ref>
], the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/IranianThreat/News/Article.aspx?id=257112|title=Iran must attack Israel by 2014|date=9 February 2012|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|access-date=3 April 2012}}</ref> Israel was established as an independent ] and Jewish state on 14 May 1948.<ref name="cia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/israel/|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|work=The World Factbook|access-date=20 July 2007|date=19 June 2007|title=Israel}}</ref> Of the 120 members in its parliament, the ],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_beh.htm|publisher=The Knesset|access-date=8 August 2007|title=The Electoral System in Israel}}</ref> {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, 14 members of the Knesset are ] (not including the Druze), most representing Arab political parties. One of Israel's ] judges is also an Arab citizen of Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2009/israel|title=Israel|work=Freedom in the World|publisher=Freedom House|year=2009|access-date=5 April 2012|archive-date=19 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819061301/http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2009/israel|url-status=dead}}</ref>


Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_01&CYear=2006|publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics|accessdate=7 August 2007 |year=2006 |title=Population, by Religion and Population Group}}</ref> Currently, Jews account for 75.4% of the Israeli population, or 6&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4280028,00.html |title=Jewish New Year: Israel's population nears 8M mark |publisher=Ynetnews.com |date=20 June 1995 |accessdate=12 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Harriet Sherwood in Jerusalem |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/01/israel-jewish-population-six-million |title=Israel's Jewish population passes 6 million mark |work=Guardian |date=1 January 2013 |accessdate=12 April 2013}}</ref> The early years of the State of Israel were marked by the ] of ] in the ] and Jews ].<ref name="persecution">{{harvnb|Dekmejian|1975|p=247}}. "And most came... because of Arab persecution resulting from the very attempt to establish a Jewish state in Palestine."</ref> Israel also has a large population of ], many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|title=airlifted tens of thousands of Ethiopian Jews|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ejhist.html#operation1/|accessdate=7 July 2005}}</ref> Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/books/alexeewa/|script-title=ru:История инакомыслия в СССР|first=Lyudmila|last=Alexeyeva|authorlink=Lyudmila Alexeyeva|location=Vilnius|year=1983|language=Russian|trans_title=History of Dissident Movement in the USSR}}</ref> This period also saw an increase in ] from ], ], and ].<ref>Goldstein (1995) p. 24</ref> Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_01&CYear=2006 |publisher=Israel Central Bureau of Statistics |access-date=7 August 2007 |year=2006 |title=Population, by Religion and Population Group |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930033403/http://www1.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_01&CYear=2006 |archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref> Currently, Jews account for 75.4&nbsp;percent of the Israeli population, or 6&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4280028,00.html |title=Jewish New Year: Israel's population nears 8M mark |newspaper=Ynetnews |date=20 June 1995 |access-date=12 April 2013|last1=Drukman |first1=Yaron }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Harriet Sherwood in Jerusalem |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/01/israel-jewish-population-six-million |title=Israel's Jewish population passes 6 million mark |work=Guardian |date=1 January 2013 |access-date=12 April 2013}}</ref> The early years of the State of Israel were marked by the ] of ] in the ] and Jews ].<ref name="persecution">{{harvnb|Dekmejian|1975|p=247}}. "And most came... because of Arab persecution resulting from the very attempt to establish a Jewish state in Palestine."</ref> Israel also has a large population of ], many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|title=airlifted tens of thousands of Ethiopian Jews|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ejhist.html#operation1/|access-date=7 July 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/ethiopian-israelis-decry-separation-from-relatives-as-discriminatory/ |title=Ethiopian-Israelis decry separation from relatives as discriminatory |newspaper=Times of Israel |date=10 March 2018 |access-date=20 February 2024 |last1=Goldenberg |first1=Tia }}</ref> Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/books/alexeewa/|script-title=ru:История инакомыслия в СССР|first=Lyudmila|last=Alexeyeva|author-link=Lyudmila Alexeyeva|location=Vilnius|year=1983|language=ru|trans-title=History of Dissident Movement in the USSR|access-date=5 April 2012|archive-date=9 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309152800/http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/books/alexeewa/|url-status=dead}}</ref> This period also saw an increase in ] from ], ], and ].<ref>Goldstein (1995) p. 24</ref>


A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including ] and others, as well as some descendants of ] Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the ], ], ], ], and ]. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, because of economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing ]. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as ].<ref name="Dosick 2007, p. 340">Dosick (2007), p. 340.</ref> A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including ] and others, as well as some descendants of ] Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the ], ], ], ], and ]. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, because of economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing ]. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as ].<ref name="Dosick 2007, p. 340">Dosick (2007), p. 340.</ref>


====Diaspora (outside Israel)==== ==== Diaspora (outside Israel) ====
{{Main article|Jewish diaspora}} {{main|Jewish diaspora}}
] greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews fled the ] of the ] to the safety of the U.S. between 1881 and 1924.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gurock|first=Jeffrey S.|title=East European Jews in America, 1880–1920: Immigration and Adaptation|year=1998|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=0-415-91924-X|page=54}}</ref>]]
The waves of ] and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century, the founding of ] and later events, including ] in Russia, the massacre of European Jewry during ], and the founding of the ], with the subsequent ], all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century.<ref>Gartner (2001), p. 213.</ref>


] dominating the main square in ]. An estimated 70,000 ] live in ].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=136974 |title= Planting Jewish roots in Siberia |publisher= Fjc.ru |date= 24 May 2004 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090827113526/http://www.fjc.ru/news/newsArticle.asp?AID=136974 |archive-date= 27 August 2009 |df= dmy-all}}</ref>]]
] in ], ]]]
The waves of ] and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century, the founding of ] and later events, including ] in Imperial Russia (mostly within the ] in present-day Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus and eastern Poland), the massacre of European Jewry during ], and the founding of the ], with the subsequent ], all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century.<ref>Gartner (2001), p. 213.</ref>
] greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews fled the ] of the ] to the safety of the U.S. between 1881 and 1924.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gurock|first=Jeffrey S.|title=East European Jews in America, 1880–1920: Immigration and Adaptation|year=1998|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=0-415-91924-X|page=54 }}</ref>]]
More than half of the Jews live in the Diaspora (see Population table). Currently, the largest Jewish community outside Israel, and either the largest or second-largest Jewish community in the world, is located in the United States, with 5.2&nbsp;million to 6.4&nbsp;million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in ] (315,000), ] (180,000–300,000), and ] (196,000–600,000), and smaller populations in ], ], ], ], ] and several other countries (see ]).<ref name="JPPI2007">{{cite web|title=Annual Assessment|url=http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf|year=2007|publisher=Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (])|page=15|format=PDF}}, based on {{cite book|title=Annual Assessment 2007|publisher=]|url=http://www.ajcarchives.org/main.php?GroupingId=10142|volume=106|year=2006}}</ref> Demographers disagree on whether the United States has a larger Jewish population than Israel, with many maintaining that Israel surpassed the United States in Jewish population during the 2000s, while others maintain that the United States still has the largest Jewish population in the world. Currently, a major national Jewish population survey is planned to ascertain whether or not Israel has overtaken the United States in Jewish population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishjournal.com/demographic_duo/item/israel_may_be_main_topic_in_next_national_jewish_population_survey_of_the_u |title=Israel May Be Main Topic In Next National Jewish Population Survey of the U.S. |publisher=Jewish Journal |date=14 March 2013 |accessdate=12 April 2013}}</ref>


More than half of the Jews live in the Diaspora (see Population table). Currently, the largest Jewish community outside Israel, and either the largest or second-largest Jewish community in the world, is located in the United States, with 6 million to 7.5&nbsp;million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in ] (315,000), ] (180,000–300,000), and ] (196,000–600,000), and smaller populations in ], ], ], ], ] and several other countries (see ]).<ref name="JPPI2007">{{cite web|title=Annual Assessment|url=http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf|year=2007|publisher=Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (])|page=15}}, based on {{cite book|title=Annual Assessment 2007|publisher=]|url=http://www.ajcarchives.org/main.php?GroupingId=10142|volume=106|year=2006}}</ref> According to a 2010 ] study, about 470,000 people of Jewish heritage live in ] and the ].<ref name=":6">{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/jews/ |title= Jews – Pew Research Center|website= Pew Research Center|date= 2 April 2015|access-date= 28 March 2018}}</ref> Demographers disagree on whether the United States has a larger Jewish population than Israel, with many maintaining that Israel surpassed the United States in Jewish population during the 2000s, while others maintain that the United States still has the largest Jewish population in the world. Currently, a major national Jewish population survey is planned to ascertain whether or not Israel has overtaken the United States in Jewish population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishjournal.com/demographic_duo/item/israel_may_be_main_topic_in_next_national_jewish_population_survey_of_the_u |title=Israel May Be Main Topic In Next National Jewish Population Survey of the U.S. |publisher=Jewish Journal |date=14 March 2013 |access-date=12 April 2013}}</ref>
]'s largest Jewish community, and the third-largest Jewish community in the world, can be found in ], home to between 483,000 and 500,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African Arab countries such as ], ], and ] (or their descendants).<ref>Gartner (2001), pp. 410–410.</ref> The ] has a Jewish community of 292,000. In ], there are anywhere from 350,000 to one million Jews living in the former ], but exact figures are difficult to establish. In ], the 102,000 Jews registered with the Jewish community are a slowly declining population,<ref>Jewish community in Germany: , p. 4</ref> despite the immigration of tens of thousands of Jews from the former ] since the fall of the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf|title=Annual Assessment 2007|accessdate=3 July 2008|last=Waxman|first=Chaim I.|year=2007|format=PDF|publisher=Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (])|pages=40–2}}</ref> Thousands of ] also live in Germany, either permanently or temporarily, for economic reasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jg-berlin.org/en/service/israelis-in-berlin.html|title=Israelis in Berlin|publisher=Jewish Community of Berlin|accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref>


] Youth Movement in ], Estonia, on 1 September 1933]]
Prior to 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands which now make up the ] (excluding Israel). Of these, just under two-thirds lived in the French-controlled ] region, 15–20% in the ], approximately 10% in the ] and approximately 7% in the ]. A further 200,000 lived in ] and the ]. Today, around 26,000 Jews live in Arab countries<ref>, Jerry M. Rosenberg, Hamilton Books, 2009, page 44</ref> and around 30,000 in ] and ]. A small-scale exodus had begun in many countries in the early decades of the 20th century, although the only substantial ] came from ] and ].<ref>Reeva S. Simon, Michael M. Laskier, Sara Reguer, , 2003, p.327="Before the 1940s only two communities, Yemen and Syria, made substantial aliyah."</ref> The ] took place primarily from 1948. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily in ], Yemen and ], with up to 90% of these communities leaving within a few years. The peak of the exodus from ] occurred in 1956. The exodus in the Maghreb countries peaked in the 1960s. ] was the only Arab country to see a temporary increase in its Jewish population during this period, due to an influx of refugees from other Arab countries, although by the mid-1970s the Jewish community of Lebanon had also dwindled. In the aftermath of the exodus wave from Arab states, an additional migration of ] peaked in the 1980s when around 80% of Iranian Jews left the country.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}
]'s largest Jewish community, and the third-largest Jewish community in the world, can be found in ], home to between 483,000 and 500,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African countries such as ], ], and ] (or their descendants).<ref>Gartner (2001), pp. 410–10.</ref> The ] has a Jewish community of 292,000. In ], the exact figures are difficult to establish. The number of Jews in Russia varies widely according to whether a source uses census data (which requires a person to choose a single nationality among choices that include "Russian" and "Jewish") or eligibility for immigration to Israel (which requires that a person have one or more Jewish grandparents). According to the latter criteria, the heads of the Russian Jewish community assert that up to 1.5&nbsp;million Russians are eligible for ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mskagency.ru/materials/2716461 |title=Исследование: Около 1,5 млн людей с еврейскими корнями проживают в России |trans-title=Study: About 1.5 Million People with Jewish Roots Live in Russia |date=20 October 2017 |publisher=Moscow Urban News Agency |access-date=28 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.interfax-religion.ru/?act=news&div=57988 |title=В России проживает около миллиона иудеев |trans-title=In Russia, There Are About a Million Jews |date=26 February 2015 |publisher=] |access-date=28 October 2017}}</ref> In ], the 102,000 Jews registered with the Jewish community are a slowly declining population,<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 December 2013|title=Mitgliederstatistik der jüdischen Gemeinden und Landesverbände: Zu und Abgänge 2012|url=http://www.zwst.org/cms/documents/178/de_DE/ZWST-Mitgliederstatistik-2012-web.pdf|access-date=20 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204213637/http://www.zwst.org/cms/documents/178/de_DE/ZWST-Mitgliederstatistik-2012-web.pdf |archive-date=4 December 2013 }}</ref> despite the immigration of tens of thousands of Jews from the former ] since the fall of the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf|title=Annual Assessment 2007|access-date=3 July 2008|last=Waxman|first=Chaim I.|year=2007|publisher=Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (])|pages=40–42}}</ref> Thousands of ] also live in Germany, either permanently or temporarily, for economic reasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jg-berlin.org/en/service/israelis-in-berlin.html|title=Israelis in Berlin|publisher=Jewish Community of Berlin|access-date=11 October 2012}}</ref>


Prior to 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands which now make up the ] (excluding Israel). Of these, just under two-thirds lived in the French-controlled ] region, 15 to 20&nbsp;percent in the ], approximately 10&nbsp;percent in the ] and approximately 7&nbsp;percent in the ]. A further 200,000 lived in ] and the ]. Today, around 26,000 Jews live in Arab countries<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|first=Jerry M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bdAdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44|title=The Rebirth of the Middle East|date=28 September 2009|publisher=Hamilton Books|isbn=978-0-7618-4846-2|language=en}}</ref> and around 30,000 in ] and ]. A small-scale exodus had begun in many countries in the early decades of the 20th century, although the only substantial ] came from ] and ].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Simon |editor1-first=Reeva Spector |editor2-last=Laskier |editor2-first=Michael Menachem |editor3-last=Reguer |editor3-first=Sara |year=2003 |title=The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-50759-2 |page=327 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxEJrEY22egC&pg=PA327 |quote=Before the 1940s only two communities, Yemen and Syria, made substantial aliyah. }}</ref> The ] took place primarily from 1948. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily in ], Yemen and ], with up to 90&nbsp;percent of these communities leaving within a few years. The peak of the exodus from ] occurred in 1956. The exodus in the Maghreb countries peaked in the 1960s. ] was the only Arab country to see a temporary increase in its Jewish population during this period, due to an influx of refugees from other Arab countries, although by the mid-1970s the Jewish community of Lebanon had also dwindled. In the aftermath of the exodus wave from Arab states, an additional migration of ] peaked in the 1980s when around 80&nbsp;percent of Iranian Jews left the country.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}
Outside ], the ], the ], and the rest of ], there are significant Jewish populations in ] (112,500) and ] (70,000).<ref name="JVIL2010" /> There is also a 7,500-strong community in ].{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}


Outside ], the ], the ], and the rest of ], there are significant Jewish populations in ] (112,500) and ] (70,000).<ref name="JVIL2010" /> There is also a 6,800-strong community in ].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Congress|first=World Jewish|title=World Jewish Congress|url=https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/NZ|access-date=20 August 2022|website=World Jewish Congress|language=EN}}</ref>
===Demographic changes===
{{Main article|Historical Jewish population comparisons}}


====Assimilation==== === Demographic changes ===
{{main|Historical Jewish population comparisons}}
{{Main article|Jewish assimilation|Interfaith marriage in Judaism}}
Since at least the time of the ], a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their ].<ref name=Johnson171>Johnson (1987), p. 171.</ref> Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods,<ref name=Johnson171 /> with some Jewish communities, for example the ] of ], disappearing entirely.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shavei.org/communities/kaifeng_jews/articles-kaifeng_jews/chinese-jews-reverence-for-ancestors/ |title=Chinese Jews: Reverence for Ancestors |last=Edinger |first=Bernard |date=15 December 2005 |publisher=Shavei Israel |accessdate=2 April 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003094552/http://www.shavei.org/communities/kaifeng_jews/articles-kaifeng_jews/chinese-jews-reverence-for-ancestors/ |archivedate=3 October 2012 }}</ref> The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see ]) and the subsequent ] of Europe and America in the 19th century, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, ]. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.<ref>Elazar (2003), p. 434.</ref>


==== Assimilation ====
Rates of ] vary widely: In the United States, it is just under 50%,<ref>{{cite web|title=NJPS: Defining and Calculating Intermarriage |url=http://www.jewishfederations.org/page.aspx?id=46252 |accessdate=2 April 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812024158/http://www.jewishfederations.org/page.aspx?id=46252 |archivedate=12 August 2011 }}</ref> in the United Kingdom, around 53%; in France; around 30%,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.akadem.org/medias/documents/Rapport-Erik-Cohen.pdf|title=Les juifs de France: La lente progression des mariages mixtes|last=Cohen|first=Erik H.|date=November 2002|publisher=Akadem|language=French|accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref> and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Australia|url=http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/communities/show/id/2|publisher=World Jewish Congress|accessdate=2 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Virtual Jewish History Tour&nbsp;– Mexico|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Mexico.html|accessdate=7 July 2005}}</ref> In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate with Jewish religious practice.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf|title=Annual Assessment 2007|accessdate=3 July 2008|last=Waxman|first=Chaim I.|year=2007|format=PDF|publisher=Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (])|page=61}}</ref> The result is that most countries in the ] have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}
{{main|Jewish assimilation|Interfaith marriage in Judaism}}
Since at least the time of the ], a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their ].<ref name=Johnson171>Johnson (1987), p. 171.</ref> Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods,<ref name=Johnson171 /> with some Jewish communities, for example the ] of ], disappearing entirely.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shavei.org/communities/kaifeng_jews/articles-kaifeng_jews/chinese-jews-reverence-for-ancestors/ |title=Chinese Jews: Reverence for Ancestors |last=Edinger |first=Bernard |date=15 December 2005 |publisher=Shavei Israel |access-date=2 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003094552/http://www.shavei.org/communities/kaifeng_jews/articles-kaifeng_jews/chinese-jews-reverence-for-ancestors/ |archive-date=3 October 2012}}</ref> The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see ]) and the subsequent ] of Europe and America in the 19th century, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, ]. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.<ref>Elazar (2003), p. 434.</ref>


Rates of ] vary widely: In the United States, it is just under 50&nbsp;percent,<ref>{{cite web|title=NJPS: Defining and Calculating Intermarriage |url=http://www.jewishfederations.org/page.aspx?id=46252 |website=The Jewish Federations of North America |access-date=2 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812024158/http://www.jewishfederations.org/page.aspx?id=46252 |archive-date=12 August 2011}}</ref> in the United Kingdom, around 53&nbsp;percent; in France; around 30&nbsp;percent,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-prod.akadem.org/medias/documents/Rapport-Erik-Cohen.pdf |title=Les juifs de France: La lente progression des mariages mixtes |trans-title=The Jews of France: The slow progression of mixed marriages |last=Cohen |first=Erik H. |date=November 2002 |publisher=Akadem |language=fr |access-date=12 October 2020 |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416230622/http://www-prod.akadem.org/medias/documents/Rapport-Erik-Cohen.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10&nbsp;percent.<ref>{{cite web|title=Australia|url=http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/communities/show/id/2|publisher=World Jewish Congress|access-date=2 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521082932/http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/communities/show/id/2|archive-date=21 May 2012}}</ref> In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate with Jewish religious practice.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf|title=Annual Assessment 2007|access-date=3 July 2008|last=Waxman|first=Chaim I.|year=2007|publisher=Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (])|page=61}}</ref> The result is that most countries in the ] have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}
====War and persecution====
{{Main article|Persecution of Jews}}
{{Further information|Antisemitism|Anti-Judaism|Orientalism|Christianity and antisemitism|Islam and antisemitism|History of antisemitism|New antisemitism}}
] poster showing a soldier cutting the bonds from a Jewish man, who says, "You have cut my bonds and set me free – now let me help you set others free!"]]
The Jewish people and ] have experienced various ]s throughout ]. During ] and the ] the ] (in its later phases known as the ]) repeatedly repressed the ], first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan ] and later by officially establishing them as ] during the Christian Roman era.<ref>Goldenberg (2007), pp. 131, 135–6.</ref><ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 164–5.</ref>


==== War and persecution ====
According to ], "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the ]. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200&nbsp;million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13&nbsp;million."<ref>Carroll, James. '']'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) ISBN 0-395-77927-8 p. 26</ref>
{{further|Persecution of Jews|Antisemitism|Jewish military history}}
] sends ] with an army to destroy the Jews, 69&nbsp;CE.]]


The Jewish people and ] have experienced various ]s throughout ]. During ] and the ], the ] (in its later phases known as the ]) repeatedly repressed the ], first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan ] and later by officially establishing them as ] during the Christian Roman era.<ref>Goldenberg (2007), pp. 131, 135–36.</ref><ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 164–65.</ref>
] sends ] with an army to destroy the Jews, 69 CE]]


According to ], "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the ]. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200&nbsp;million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13&nbsp;million."<ref>Carroll, James. '']'' (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) {{ISBN|0-395-77927-8}} p. 26</ref>
Later in ] ], further persecutions of Jews by Christians occurred, notably during the ]—when Jews all over Germany ]—and a series of expulsions from the ], Germany, France, and, in the ], Spain and Portugal after the ] (the Catholic Reconquest of the ]), where both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling ] ] were expelled.<ref name="Johnson207-208" /><ref name="Johnson213plus" />


Later in ] Western Europe, further persecutions of Jews by Christians occurred, notably during the ]—when Jews all over Germany ]—and in a series of expulsions from the ], Germany, and France. Then there occurred the ], when Spain and Portugal, after the ] (the Catholic Reconquest of the ]), expelled both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling Muslim ].<ref name="Johnson207-208" /><ref name="Johnson213plus" />
In the ], which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ]s.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 243–4.</ref>


In the ], which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ]s.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 243–44.</ref>
] have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as ], were allowed to practice their religions and administer their internal affairs, but they were subject to certain conditions.<ref name="Bernard1020">Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20</ref> They had to pay the ] (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state.<ref name="Bernard1020" /> Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal ] such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.<ref>Lewis (1987), p. 9, 27</ref> Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by ] as "most degrading"<ref name=Lewis131 /> was the requirement of ], not found in the ] or ] but invented in ] ]; its enforcement was highly erratic.<ref name=Lewis131>Lewis (1999), p.131</ref> On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.<ref>Lewis (1999), p.131; (1984), pp.8,62</ref>
] poster showing a soldier cutting the bonds from a Jewish man, who says, "You have cut my bonds and set me free—now let me help you set others free!"]]
] have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as ], were allowed to practice their religions and administer their internal affairs, but they were subject to certain conditions.<ref name="Bernard1020">Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20</ref> They had to pay the ] (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state.<ref name="Bernard1020" /> Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal ] such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.<ref>Lewis (1987), pp. 9, 27</ref> Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by ] as "most degrading"<ref name=Lewis131 /> was the requirement of ], not found in the ] or ] but invented in ] Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic.<ref name=Lewis131>Lewis (1999), p.131</ref> On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.<ref>Lewis (1999), p. 131; (1984), pp. 8, 62</ref>


Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the ] dynasty in ] in the 12th century,<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p.77</ref> as well as in ],<ref>Lewis (1984), pp. 17–8, 94–5; Stillman (1979), p. 27</ref> and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as ]s beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century.<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 28.</ref> In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard ] publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as ] and ], in the pronouncements of various agencies of the ], and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish ]."<ref name=Lewis_MEQ>{{cite web|url=http://www.meforum.org/396/muslim-anti-semitism|title=Muslim Anti-Semitism|first=Bernard|last=Lewis|authorlink=Bernard Lewis|work=Middle East Quarterly|publisher=Middle East Forum|date=June 1998}}</ref> Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the ] dynasty in ] in the 12th century,<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p. 77</ref> as well as in ],<ref>Lewis (1984), pp. 17–18, 94–95; Stillman (1979), p. 27</ref> and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as ]s beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century.<ref>Lewis (1984), p. 28.</ref> In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard ] publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as ] and ], in the pronouncements of various agencies of the ], and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish ]."<ref name=Lewis_MEQ>{{cite journal|url=http://www.meforum.org/396/muslim-anti-semitism|title=Muslim Anti-Semitism|first=Bernard|last=Lewis|author-link=Bernard Lewis|journal=Middle East Quarterly|publisher=Middle East Forum|date=June 1998}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2022}}


Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from ] to outright ]; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The ] includes the ] which resulted in the massacre of Jews;<ref name="Johnson207-208">Johnson (1987), pp. 207–08.</ref> the ] (led by ]) and the ], with their persecution and '']'' against the ] and ] Jews;<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 226–29.</ref> the ] Cossack massacres in ];<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 259–60.</ref> the ]s backed by the Russian ];<ref name="Johnson 1987, pp. 364–365">Johnson (1987), pp. 364–65.</ref> as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled.<ref name="Johnson213plus">Johnson (1987), pp. 213, 229–31.</ref> According to a 2008 study published in the '']'', 19.8&nbsp;percent of the modern ] population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry,<ref name="Adams2008">{{cite journal|last=Adams|first=Susan M.|year=2008|title=The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=83|issue=6|pages=725–36|issn=0002-9297|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007|pmid=19061982|pmc=2668061}}</ref> indicating that the number of ]s may have been much higher than originally thought.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/04/world/europe/04iht-gene.4.18411385.html|title=DNA study shows 20 percent of Iberian population has Jewish ancestry|newspaper=The New York Times|date=4 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=Susan M. |last2=Bosch |first2=Elena |last3=Balaresque |first3=Patricia L. |last4=Ballereau |first4=Stéphane J. |last5=Lee |first5=Andrew C. |last6=Arroyo |first6=Eduardo |last7=López-Parra |first7=Ana M. |last8=Aler |first8=Mercedes |last9=Grifo |first9=Marina S. Gisbert |last10=Brion |first10=Maria |last11=Carracedo |first11=Angel |last12=Lavinha |first12=João |last13=Martínez-Jarreta |first13=Begoña |last14=Quintana-Murci |first14=Lluis |last15=Picornell |first15=Antònia |last16=Ramon |first16=Misericordia |last17=Skorecki |first17=Karl |last18=Behar |first18=Doron M. |last19=Calafell |first19=Francesc |last20=Jobling |first20=Mark A. |title=The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=December 2008 |volume=83 |issue=6 |pages=725–736 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007 |pmid=19061982 |pmc=2668061 }}</ref>
], 1941. Before World War II some 40% of the population was Jewish. By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors.]]
Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from ] to outright ]; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The ] includes the ] which resulted in the massacre of Jews;<ref name="Johnson207-208">Johnson (1987), pp. 207–8.</ref> the ] (led by ]) and the ], with their persecution and '']'' against the ] and ] Jews;<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 226–9.</ref> the ] ] massacres in ];<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 259–60.</ref> the ]s backed by the Russian ];<ref name="Johnson 1987, pp. 364–5">Johnson (1987), pp. 364–5.</ref> as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled.<ref name="Johnson213plus">Johnson (1987), pp. 213, 229–31.</ref> According to a 2008 study published in the ], 19.8% of the modern ] population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry,<ref name="Adams2008">{{cite journal|last=Adams|first=Susan M.|year=2008|title=The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=83|issue=6|pages=725–736|issn=0002-9297|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007|pmid=19061982|pmc=2668061}}</ref> indicating that the number of ]s may have been much higher than originally thought.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/04/world/europe/04iht-gene.4.18411385.html|title=DNA study shows 20 percent of Iberian population has Jewish ancestry|newspaper=The New York Times|date=4 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.cell.com/AJHG/fulltext/S0002-9297(08)00592-2|title=The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula|publisher=Cell.com|work=American Society of Human Genetics|date=December 2008|accessdate=12 November 2011}}</ref>


], 1941. Before World War&nbsp;II, some 40&nbsp;percent of the population was Jewish. By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors.]]
The persecution reached a peak in ]'s ], which led to ] and the slaughter of approximately 6&nbsp;million Jews.<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 512.</ref> Of the world's 15&nbsp;million Jews in 1939, more than a third were killed in the Holocaust.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/history.html|title=History of the Holocaust&nbsp;– An Introduction|publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org|date=19 April 1943|accessdate=13 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Luke Harding in Moscow|url=https://www.theguardian.com/ukraine/story/0,,2096327,00.html|title=Pipeline workers find mass grave of Jews killed by Nazis|work=The Guardian|location=UK|accessdate=13 November 2011|date=5 June 2007}}</ref> The Holocaust—the state-led systematic ] and ] of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in ]) and other ]s of Europe during ] by Germany and its ] remains the most notable modern-day persecution of Jews.<ref>Donald L Niewyk, ''The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust'', ], 2000, p.45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II." However, the Holocaust usually includes all of the different victims who were systematically murdered.</ref> The persecution and ] were accomplished in stages. ] was enacted years before the outbreak of ].<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 484–8.</ref> ] were established in which inmates were used as ] until they died of exhaustion or disease.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 490–2.</ref> Where the ] conquered new territory in ], specialized units called ] murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.<ref name="BBC-Grave">{{cite news|title=Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6724481.stm|newspaper=BBC News Online|date=5 June 2007|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> Jews and ] were crammed into ] before being transported hundreds of miles by freight train to ]s where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were killed in gas chambers.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 493–8.</ref> Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."<ref name=Berenbaum103>Berenbaum, Michael. ''The World Must Know," United States Holocaust Museum'', 2006, p. 103.</ref>
The persecution reached a peak in ]'s ], which led to ] and the slaughter of approximately 6&nbsp;million Jews.<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 512.</ref> Of the world's 16&nbsp;million Jews in 1939, almost 40% were murdered in the Holocaust.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 February 2015 |title=The continuing decline of Europe's Jewish population |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/02/09/europes-jewish-population/ |archive-date=1 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401012738/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/02/09/europes-jewish-population/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Holocaust—the state-led systematic ] and ] of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in ]) and other ]s of Europe during ] by Germany and its ]—remains the most notable modern-day persecution of Jews.<ref>Donald L Niewyk, ''The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust'', ], 2000, p. 45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II." However, the Holocaust usually includes all of the different victims who were systematically murdered.</ref> The persecution and ] were accomplished in stages. ] was enacted years before the outbreak of World War&nbsp;II.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 484–88.</ref> ] were established in which inmates were used as ] until they died of exhaustion or disease.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 490–92.</ref> Where the ] conquered new territory in ], specialized units called ] murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.<ref name="BBC-Grave">{{cite news|title=Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6724481.stm|newspaper=BBC News Online|date=5 June 2007|access-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> Jews and ] were crammed into ] before being transported hundreds of kilometres by freight train to ]s where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were murdered in gas chambers.<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 493–98.</ref> Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."<ref name=Berenbaum103>Berenbaum, Michael. ''The World Must Know," United States Holocaust Museum'', 2006, p. 103.</ref>


====Migrations==== ==== Migrations ====
{{further|Expulsions of Jews}}
] on 23 August, ]. The text says: "1380 persons old and young were counted at the exit of the gate"]]
]
Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland, the ], and many of the areas in which they have settled. This experience as ] has shaped ] and religious practice in many ways, and is thus a major element of Jewish history.<ref>de Lange (2002), pp. 41–43.</ref> The patriarch ] is described as a migrant to the land of ] from ] of the ]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 10.</ref> after an attempt on his life by King ].<ref>{{cite Jewish Encyclopedia|title=NIMROD|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11548-nimrod|first1=Emil G.|last1=Hirsch|author-link1=Emil G. Hirsch|first2=Max|last2=Seligsohn|author-link2=Max Seligsohn|first3=Wilhelm|last3=Bacher|author-link3=Wilhelm Bacher}}</ref> His descendants, the ], in the Biblical story (whose historicity is uncertain) undertook ] (meaning "departure" or "exit" in Greek) from ], as recorded in the ].<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 30.</ref>

] in ]. The text says: "1380 persons old and young were counted at the exit of the gate".]]
] ]
Centuries later, ]n policy was to deport and displace conquered peoples, and it is estimated some 4,500,000 among captive populations suffered this dislocation over three centuries of Assyrian rule.<ref name="Smith-Christopher" /> With regard to Israel, ] claims he deported 80% of the population of ], some 13,520 people.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC|title=The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century|year=1996 |isbn=9780931464966 |last1=Cooper |first1=Jerrold S. |last2=Schwartz |first2=Glenn M. |publisher=Eisenbrauns }}</ref> Some 27,000 Israelites, 20 to 25% of the population of the ], were described as being deported by ], and were replaced by other deported populations and sent into permanent exile by Assyria, initially to the Upper Mesopotamian provinces of the Assyrian Empire.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC|title=Biblical History and Israel S Past|isbn=9780802862600 |last1=Moore |first1=Megan Bishop |last2=Kelle |first2=Brad E. |date=17 May 2011 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPoQkBwjnVcC|title=Mixing Metaphors|isbn=9780826469694 |last1=Dille |first1=Sarah J. |date=July 2004 |publisher=A&C Black }}</ref> Between 10,000 and 80,000 people from the ] were similarly exiled by ]ia,<ref name="Smith-Christopher">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YhMAwAAQBAJ|title=The Religion of the Landless|isbn=9781608994786 |last1=Smith-Christopher |first1=Daniel L. |date=14 January 2015 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers }}</ref> but these people were then returned to ] by ] of the Persian ].<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 85–86.</ref>
Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland, the ], and many of the areas in which they have settled. This experience as ] has shaped ] and religious practice in many ways, and is thus a major element of Jewish history.<ref>de Lange (2002), pp. 41–3.</ref> The incomplete list of major and other noteworthy ] that follows includes numerous instances of expulsion or departure under duress:
* The mythical patriarch ] is described as a migrant to the land of ] from ] of the ]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 10.</ref> after an attempt on his life by King ].<ref>{{cite Jewish Encyclopedia|title=NIMROD|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11548-nimrod|first1=Emil G.|last1=Hirsch|authorlink1=Emil G. Hirsch|first2=Max|last2=Seligsohn|authorlink2=Max Seligsohn|first3=Wilhelm|last3=Bacher|authorlink3=Wilhelm Bacher}}</ref>
* The ], in the Biblical story whose historicity is uncertain, undertook ] (meaning "departure" or "exit" in Greek) from ], as recorded in the ].<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 30.</ref>
* ]n policy was to deport and displace conquered peoples, and it is estimated some 4,500,000 among captive populations suffered this dislocation over 3 centuries of Assyrian rule.<ref name="Smith-Christopher" /> With regard to Israel, ] claims he deported 80% of the population of ], some 13,520 people.<ref>Baruch Halpern, in Jerrold S. Cooper, Glenn M. Schwartz (eds.), Eisenbrauns, 1996 p.311.</ref> Some 27,000 Israelites, 20–25% of the population of the ], were described as being deported by ], and were replaced by other deported populations and sent into permanent exile by Assyria, initially to the Upper Mesopotamian provinces of the Assyrian Empire,<ref>Megan Bishop Moore, Brad E. Kelle, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2011 p.307.</ref><ref>Sarah J. Dille, A&C Black, 2004 p.81</ref>
* Between 10,000 and 80,000 people from the ] were exiled by ]ia,<ref name="Smith-Christopher">Daniel L. Smith-Christopher, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2015 pp.30ff.</ref> then returned to ] by ] of the Persian ],<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 85–6.</ref> and then many were exiled again by the ].<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 147.</ref>
* The 2,000 year dispersion of the ] beginning under the ],{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land,{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from ]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 163.</ref> to the ]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 177.</ref> to ]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 231.</ref> to the ]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 460.</ref> and, as a result of ], back to ].<ref name=Gartner431>Gartner (2001), p. 431.</ref>
* Many expulsions during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the ''(])''; in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421&nbsp;thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in ], especially Poland.<ref name="Gartner 11-12">Gartner (2001), pp. 11–2.</ref>
* Following the ] in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 ]c Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and ], followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the ], the Netherlands, and ], others migrating to ] and the Middle East.<ref name="Johnson229-231">Johnson (1987), pp. 229–31.</ref>
* During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe).<ref name="Johnson 1987, p. 306">Johnson (1987), p. 306.</ref>
* The arrival of millions of Jews in the ], including immigration of over two million Eastern European Jews to the United States from 1880 to 1925, see ] and ].<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 370.</ref>
* The ]s in Eastern Europe,<ref name="Johnson 1987, pp. 364–5" /> the rise of modern ],<ref name="Gartner 2001, pp. 213–5">Gartner (2001), pp. 213–5.</ref> the Holocaust,<ref>Gartner (2001), pp. 357–70.</ref> and the rise of ]<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 529–30.</ref> all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent, until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.<ref name=Gartner431 />
* The ] caused many ] to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly ]) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Netzer|first=Amnon|editor=Fred Skolnik|encyclopedia=]|title=Iran|edition=2d|year=2007|publisher=Thomson Gale|volume=10|location=Farmington Hills, Mich.|isbn=0-02-865928-7|page=13|ref=harv }}</ref>
* When the ], many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been ]s) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s.<ref name="Dosick 2007, p. 340" />


Many Jews were exiled again by the ].<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 147.</ref> The 2,000 year dispersion of the ] beginning under the ],<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 May 2005 |title=The Post-Second Temple Period |url=https://archive.jewishagency.org/israel-diaspora-relations/content/23757 |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=The Jewish Agency |language=en}}</ref> as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh9w1wk |title=Next Year in Jerusalem: Exile and Return in Jewish History |date=2019 |publisher=Purdue University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctvh9w1wk |jstor=j.ctvh9w1wk |isbn=978-1-55753-875-8|s2cid=263234025 }}</ref> settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from ]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 163.</ref> to the ]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 177.</ref> to ]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 231.</ref> to the ]<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 460.</ref> and, as a result of ], back to ].<ref name="Gartner431">Gartner (2001), p. 431.</ref>
====Growth====
]]]
Israel is the only country with a Jewish population that is consistently growing through ], although the Jewish populations of other countries, in Europe and North America, have recently increased through immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but ] and ] Jewish communities, whose members often shun ] for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth.<ref>Gartner (2001), pp. 400–1.</ref>


There were also many expulsions of Jews during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the ''(])''; in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in ], especially Poland.<ref name="Gartner 11-12">Gartner (2001), pp. 11–12.</ref> Following the ] in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 ]c Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and ], followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the ], the Netherlands, and ], others migrating to ] and the Middle East.<ref name="Johnson229-231">Johnson (1987), pp. 229–31.</ref>
Orthodox and ] discourage ] to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle ] favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples.<ref>Kaplan (2003), p. 301.</ref>


During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe).<ref name="Johnson 1987, p. 306">Johnson (1987), p. 306.</ref> This contributed to the arrival of millions of Jews in the ]. Over two million Eastern European Jews arrived in the United States from 1880 to 1925.<ref>Johnson (1987), p. 370.</ref>
There is also a trend of Orthodox movements pursuing secular Jews in order to give them a stronger ] so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years, there has been a trend (known as the '']'' movement) for secular Jews to become more religiously observant, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown.<ref>Danzger (2003), pp. 495–6.</ref> Additionally, there is also a growing rate of conversion to ] of ] who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.<ref>de Lange (2002), p. 220.</ref>


In summary, the ]s in Eastern Europe,<ref name="Johnson 1987, pp. 364–365"/> the rise of modern ],<ref name="Gartner 2001, pp. 213–5">Gartner (2001), pp. 213–15.</ref> the Holocaust,<ref>Gartner (2001), pp. 357–70.</ref> as well as the rise of ],<ref>Johnson (1987), pp. 529–30.</ref> all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.<ref name="Gartner431" />
==Leadership==
{{Main article|Jewish leadership}}
There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eisenstadt|first=S.N.|title=Explorations in Jewish Historical Experience: The Civilizational Dimension|year=2004|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|isbn=90-04-13693-2|page=75 }}</ref> Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Hal M.|title=From Sanctuary to Boardroom: A Jewish Approach to Leadership|year=2006|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=0-7425-5229-2|page=1 }}</ref>


In the latest phase of migrations, the ] caused many ] to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly ], and ]) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe.<ref>{{cite EJ|last=Netzer|first=Amnon|title=Iran|volume=10|page=13}}</ref> Similarly, when the ], many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been ]s) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s.<ref name="Dosick 2007, p. 340" />
==Notable individuals==
{{Main article|Lists of Jews}}
Jews have made a myriad of contributions to humanity in a broad and diverse range of fields, including the sciences, arts, politics, and business.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schwartz|first=Richard H.|title=Judaism and Global Survival|year=2001|publisher=Lantern Books|location=New York|isbn=1-930051-87-5|page=153}}</ref> Although Jews comprise only 0.2% of the world's population, over 20%<ref>{{cite book|last=Shalev|first=Baruch|title=100 Years of Nobel Prizes|year=2005|page=57|quote=A striking fact... is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of the total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. These numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14&nbsp;million people (0.2% of the world's population) are Jewish.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/16556/as-the-nobel-prize-marks-centennial-jews-constitute-1-5-of-laureates/|title=As the Nobel Prize marks centennial, Jews constitute 1/5 of laureates|accessdate=3 April 2012|last=Dobbs|first=Stephen Mark|date=12 October 2001|newspaper=]|quote=Throughout the 20th century, Jews, more so than any other minority, ethnic or cultural group, have been recipients of the Nobel Prize – perhaps the most distinguished award for human endeavor in the six fields for which it is given. Remarkably, Jews constitute almost one-fifth of all Nobel laureates. This, in a world in which Jews number just a fraction of 1 percent of the population.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishbiography.com/biographies/list-of-jews/jewish-nobel-prize-winners/index.html|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|accessdate=25 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Judaism for dummies|chapter=28|year=2001|quote=Similarly, because Jews make up less than a quarter of one percent of the world's population, it's surprising that over 20 percent of Nobel prizes have been awarded to Jews or people of Jewish descent.|author1=Ted Falcon |author2=David Blatner |publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Central Liberal Truth: How Politics Can Change a Culture and Save It|author=Lawrence E. Harrison|page=102|year=2008|publisher=]|quote=That achievement is symbolized by the fact that 15 to 20 percent of Nobel Prizes have been won by Jews, who represent two tenths of one percent of the world's population.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The History of the Jewish People: Ancient Israel to 1880's America|page=1|year=2006|publisher=Behrman House, Inc.|quote=These accomplishments account for 20 percent of the Nobel Prizes awarded since 1901. What a feat for a people who make up only .2 percent of the world's population!|author1=Jonathan B. Krasner |author2=Jonathan D. Sarna }}</ref> of ] laureates have been Jewish or of Jewish descent, with ].


==See also== ==== Growth ====
]]]
* ]
Israel is the only country with a Jewish population that is consistently growing through ], although the Jewish populations of other countries, in Europe and North America, have recently increased through immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but ] and ] Jewish communities, whose members often shun ] for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth.<ref>Gartner (2001), pp. 400–01.</ref>


Orthodox and ] discourage ] to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle ] favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples.<ref>Kaplan (2003), p. 301.</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=


There is also a trend of Orthodox movements reaching out to secular Jews in order to give them a stronger ] so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years, there has been a trend (known as the ]) for secular Jews to become more religiously observant, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9780470758014.ch27 |chapter=The 'Return' to Traditional Judaism at the End of the Twentieth Century: Cross-Cultural Comparisons |title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism |year=2008 |last1=Danzger |first1=M. Herbert |pages=495–511 |isbn=978-0-470-75801-4 }}</ref> Additionally, there is also a growing rate of conversion to ] of ] who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.<ref>de Lange (2002), p. 220.</ref>
<ref name="Behar2010">{{cite journal|author1=Doron M. Behar |author2=Bayazit Yunusbayev |author3=Mait Metspalu |author4=Ene Metspalu |author5=Saharon Rosset |author6=Jüri Parik |author7=Siiri Rootsi |author8=Gyaneshwer Chaubey |author9=Ildus Kutuev |author10=Guennady Yudkovsky |author11=Elza K. Khusnutdinova |author12=Oleg Balanovsky |author13=Olga Balaganskaya |author14=Ornella Semino |author15=Luisa Pereira |author16=David Comas |author17=David Gurwitz |author18=Batsheva Bonne-Tamir |author19=Tudor Parfitt |author20=Michael F. Hammer |author21=Karl Skorecki |author22=Richard Villems |url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/44657170_The_genome-wide_structure_of_the_Jewish_people/file/79e41508a88be7e829.pdf |title=The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people |journal=Nature |date=July 2010 |volume=466 |doi=10.1038/nature09103 |issue=7303 |pages=238–42 |pmid=20531471 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203022557/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/44657170_The_genome-wide_structure_of_the_Jewish_people/file/79e41508a88be7e829.pdf |archivedate=3 December 2013 |bibcode=2010Natur.466..238B }}</ref>
{{Clear}}


== Contributions ==
<ref name="Population of Jews">''14.3&nbsp;million'' (core Jewish population) to ''17,4&nbsp;million'' (including non-Jews who have a Jewish parent), according to:
*{{cite report |author=DellaPergola, Sergio |date=2015 |title=World Jewish Population, 2015 |url=http://www.jewishdatabank.org/Studies/downloadFile.cfm?FileID=3394 |publisher=Berman Jewish DataBank |accessdate=4 May 2016}}
''14–14.5&nbsp;million'' according to:
*{{cite news|title=Worldwide Jewry numbers 14 million|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4324677,00.html|publisher=Ynet|accessdate=21 October 2013}}
*{{cite web|title=Jewish Population|url=http://www.jewfaq.org/populatn.htm|work=Judaism101|accessdate=20 September 2013}}
*{{cite web|author=Daniel J. Elazar|title=How Strong is Orthodox Judaism – Really? The Demographics of Jewish Religious Identification|url=http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles2/demographics.htm|work=]|accessdate=20 September 2013}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-jew/|work=]|title= The Global Religious Landscape&nbsp;— Jews|date=18 December 2012|accessdate=31 October 2013}}</ref>
<ref name=american-jewish-population>An estimated figure, the following sources claim the number to be either slightly higher or lower:
*{{cite journal|title=American Jewish Population Estimates: 2012 |journal=] – Steinhardt Social Research Institute |page=7 |url=http://www.brandeis.edu/ssri/pdfs/AmJewishPopEst2012.pdf |accessdate=21 October 2013 }}
*{{cite web|title=Jewish Population in the United States, by State |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/usjewpop.html |work=JVL |accessdate=21 October 2013 }}
*{{cite web|url=http://forward.com/articles/149492/us-jewish-population-pegged-at--million/ |title=U.S. Jewish Population Pegged at 6 Million |publisher=Forward |date=17 January 2012 |accessdate=5 February 2013 |author=Naomi Zeveloff }}
*
*
*{{cite web|title=A portrait of Jewish Americans Chapter 1: Population Estimates |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2013/10/01/chapter-1-population-estimates/ |publisher=] |accessdate=7 October 2013 |date=1 October 2013 |quote=Combining 5.3&nbsp;million adult Jews (the estimated size of the net Jewish population in this survey) with 1.3&nbsp;million children (in households with a Jewish adult who are being raised Jewish or partly Jewish) yields a total estimate of 6.7&nbsp;million Jews of all ages in the United States (rounded to the nearest 100,000). }}
*{{cite news|last=DellaPergola |first=Sergio |title=Bigger Population Estimate Means Wider Definition of Jewishness |url=http://forward.com/articles/184983/bigger-population-estimate-means-wider-definition/ |accessdate=7 October 2013 |newspaper=] |date=6 October 2013 |authorlink=Sergio DellaPergola }}</ref>


Jewish individuals have played a significant role in the development and growth of ],<ref name="Cambridge University Historical Series"/><ref name="britannica.com"/> advancing many fields of thought, ],<ref name="Daly2013"/> both historically and in modern times,<ref>{{cite book|last=Schwartz|first=Richard H.|title=Judaism and Global Survival|year=2001|publisher=Lantern Books|location=New York|isbn=1-930051-87-5|page=153}}</ref> including through discrete trends in ], ]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sekine |first1=Seizo |title=A Comparative Study of the Origins of Ethical Thought: Hellenism and Hebraism |date=20 January 2005 |publisher=Sheed & Ward |isbn=978-1-4616-7459-7 }}{{page needed|date=October 2020}}</ref> and ],<ref name="Daly2013"/> as well as specific trends in ], including in ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Rabin"/><ref name="Shatzmiller, Joseph 1995"/> Jews have established various ],<ref name="Daly2013"/> ], and, through the ] and parts of the ],<ref name="Dimont2004"/><ref name="Galambush2011"/> provided the foundation for ] and ].<ref name="BarclaySweet1996"/><ref name="Paterson2009"/> More than 20&nbsp;percent<ref>{{cite book|last=Shalev|first=Baruch|title=100 Years of Nobel Prizes|year=2005|page=57|quote=A striking fact... is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of the total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. These numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14&nbsp;million people (0.2% of the world's population) are Jewish.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/16556/as-the-nobel-prize-marks-centennial-jews-constitute-1-5-of-laureates/|title=As the Nobel Prize marks centennial, Jews constitute 1/5 of laureates|access-date=3 April 2012|last=Dobbs|first=Stephen Mark|date=12 October 2001|newspaper=]|quote=Throughout the 20th century, Jews, more so than any other minority, ethnic or cultural group, have been recipients of the Nobel Prize—perhaps the most distinguished award for human endeavor in the six fields for which it is given. Remarkably, Jews constitute almost one-fifth of all Nobel laureates. This, in a world in which Jews number just a fraction of 1 percent of the population.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishbiography.com/biographies/list-of-jews/jewish-nobel-prize-winners/index.html|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|access-date=25 November 2011|archive-date=19 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019170057/http://www.jewishbiography.com/biographies/list-of-jews/jewish-nobel-prize-winners/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Judaism for dummies|chapter=28|year=2001|quote=Similarly, because Jews make up less than a quarter of one percent of the world's population, it's surprising that over 20 percent of Nobel prizes have been awarded to Jews or people of Jewish descent.|author1=Ted Falcon |author2=David Blatner |publisher=]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Central Liberal Truth: How Politics Can Change a Culture and Save It|author=Lawrence E. Harrison|page=102|year=2008|publisher=]|quote=That achievement is symbolized by the fact that 15 to 20 percent of Nobel Prizes have been won by Jews, who represent two tenths of one percent of the world's population.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The History of the Jewish People: Ancient Israel to 1880s America|page=1|year=2006|publisher=Behrman House, Inc.|quote=These accomplishments account for 20 percent of the Nobel Prizes awarded since 1901. What a feat for a people who make up only .2 percent of the world's population!|author1=Jonathan B. Krasner |author2=Jonathan D. Sarna}}</ref> of the awarded ] have gone to individuals of ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Jewish Nobel Prize Winners|url=http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html|website=Jinfo.org|access-date=16 March 2016|quote=At least 194 Jews and people of half- or three-quarters-Jewish ancestry have been awarded the Nobel Prize, accounting for 22% of all individual recipients worldwide between 1901 and 2015, and constituting 36% of all US recipients during the same period. In the scientific research fields of Chemistry, Economics, Physics, and Physiology/Medicine, the corresponding world and US percentages are 26% and 38%, respectively. Among women laureates in the four research fields, the Jewish percentages (world and US) are 33% and 50%, respectively. Of organizations awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, 22% were founded principally by Jews or by people of half-Jewish descent. Since the turn of the century (i.e., since the year 2000), Jews have been awarded 25% of all Nobel Prizes and 28% of those in the scientific research fields.}}</ref>
<ref name="Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group">
*. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 23 December 2010.
*{{cite journal|jstor=2573430|title=Jewish Ethno-Religious Involvement and Political Liberalism|author=Edgar Litt|journal=Social Forces|volume=39 |issue=4|year=1961|pages=328–332|doi=10.2307/2573430}}
*{{cite book|author=Craig R. Prentiss|title=Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ap8wa_YmT2QC&pg=PA85|date=1 June 2003|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-6701-6|pages=85–}}
*{{cite book|author=The Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Eli Lederhendler Stephen S. Wise Professor of American Jewish History and Institutions|title=Studies in Contemporary Jewry : Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wvahJv83AgC&pg=PA101|date=30 November 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-534896-5|pages=101–}}
*{{cite book|author1=Ernest Krausz|author2=Gitta Tulea|title=Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century ; &#91;... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997&#93;|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnxv-Mlz0JIC&pg=PA90|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-2689-1|pages=90–}}
*{{cite book|author=John A. Shoup III|title=Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GN5yv3-U6goC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA133#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=17 October 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-363-7|page=133}}
*{{cite book|author=Tet-Lim N. Yee|title=Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4OwXhMOn5cC&pg=PA102|date=10 March 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44411-8|pages=102–}}
</ref>


== Notes ==
<!-- unused ref
{{Notelist}}
<ref name="Jews-are-ethnocultural-group">
* {{cite book|author=Kathy Megyery|title=Ethno-Cultural Groups and Visible Minorities in Canadian Politics: The Question of Access|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=olA8AgAAQBAJ|date=8 August 1996|publisher=Dundurn|isbn=978-1-4597-2770-0}}
* at
* {{cite book|author=Shulamith Lala Ashenberg Straussner|title=Ethnocultural Factors in Substance Abuse Treatment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mApMIVANmb4C|date=23 April 2012|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-4625-0591-3}}
*
* </ref>
-->


==Citations==
<!-- unused ref
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="Jews-are-Semitic">
<ref name="Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group">
* Semite, person speaking one of a group of related languages, presumably derived from a common language, Semitic (see Semitic languages). The term came to include Arabs, Akkadians, Canaanites, some Ethiopians, and Aramaean tribes including Hebrews.
* . Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 23 December 2010.
at
* {{cite journal|jstor=2573430|title=Jewish Ethno-Religious Involvement and Political Liberalism|author=Edgar Litt|journal=Social Forces|volume=39 |issue=4|year=1961|pages=328–32|doi=10.2307/2573430}}
* "Hebrew, any member of an ancient northern Semitic people that were the ancestors of the Jews." at
* {{cite book|author=Craig R. Prentiss|title=Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ze30q1hm8uUC&pg=PA85|year=2003|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-6700-9|pages=85–}}
* {{cite book|author=The Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Eli Lederhendler Stephen S. Wise Professor of American Jewish History and Institutions|title=Studies in Contemporary Jewry : Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wvahJv83AgC&pg=PA101|year= 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-534896-5|pages=101–}}
* {{cite book|author1=Ernest Krausz|author2=Gitta Tulea|title=Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; &#91;... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997&#93;|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnxv-Mlz0JIC&pg=PA90|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-2689-1|pages=90–}}
* {{cite book|author=John A. Shoup III|title=Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GN5yv3-U6goC&pg=PA133|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-363-7|page=133}}
* {{cite book|author=Tet-Lim N. Yee|title=Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4OwXhMOn5cC&pg=PA102|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44411-8|pages=102–}}
</ref> </ref>
-->
}} }}


==Further reading== ===Sources===
{{Refbegin|30em}} {{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Coogan|editor-first=Michael D.|title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C|isbn=978-0-19-513937-2|access-date=4 April 2018|archive-date=15 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201115173430/https://books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C|url-status=live}}
* ] (1952). ''A Social and Religious History of the Jews'', Volume II, ''Ancient Times'', Part II. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America.
* {{cite book|last=Dekmejian|first=R. Hrair|title=Patterns of Political Leadership: Egypt, Israel, Lebanon|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1975|isbn=0-87395-291-X}}
* {{cite book|last=Carr|first=David R.|editor1-last=Neusner|editor1-first=Jacob|editor2-last=Avery-Peck|editor2-first=Alan J.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism|year=2003|origyear=2000|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Malden, Massachusetts|isbn=1-57718-058-5|chapter=Judaism in Christendom}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dever |first=William |title=Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8WkbUkKeqcoC |isbn=978-0-8028-0975-9 |access-date=4 April 2018 |archive-date=21 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421082836/https://books.google.com/books?id=8WkbUkKeqcoC |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|last=Cowling|first=Geoffrey|title=Introduction to World Religions|publisher=First Fortress Press|location=Singapore|year=2005|isbn=0-8006-3714-3}}
* {{cite book| title = The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts
* {{cite book|last=Danzger|first=M. Herbert|editor1-last=Neusner|editor1-first=Jacob|editor2-last=Avery-Peck|editor2-first=Alan J.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism|year=2003|origyear=2000|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Malden, Massachusetts|isbn=1-57718-058-5|chapter=The "Return" to Traditional Judaism at the End of the Twentieth Century: Cross-Cultural Comparisons}}
| last1 = Finkelstein | first1 = Israel
* {{cite book|last=Dekmejian|first=R. Hrair|title=Patterns of Political Leadership: Egypt, Israel, Lebanon|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1975|isbn=0-87395-291-X|ref=harv}}
| last2 = Silberman | first2 = Neil Asher
* {{cite book|last=de Lange|first=Nicholas|title=An Introduction to Judaism|year=2002|origyear=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-46073-5}}
| publisher = Simon and Schuster
* {{cite book|last=Dosick|first=Wayne|title=Living Judaism|year=2007|publisher=HarperCollins|location=New York|isbn=0-06-062179-6}}
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC
* {{cite book|last=Elazar|first=Daniel J.|editor1-last=Neusner|editor1-first=Jacob|editor1-link=Jacob Neusner|editor2-last=Avery-Peck|editor2-first=Alan J.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism|year=2003|origyear=2000|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Malden, Massachusetts|isbn=1-57718-058-5|chapter=Judaism as a Theopolitical Phenomenon}}
| date = 2002
* {{cite book|last=Feldman|first=Louis H.|title=Judaism and Hellenism Reconsidered|year=2006|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|isbn=90-04-14906-6}}
| isbn = 978-0-7432-2338-6
* {{cite book|last=Gartner|first=Lloyd P.|title=History of the Jews in Modern Times|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-289259-2}}
}}
* {{cite book|last=Goldenberg|first=Robert|title=The Origins of Judaism: From Canaan to the Rise of Islam|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-84453-3}}
* {{cite book|title=Theodor Herzl: From Assimilation to Zionism|last=Kornberg|first=Jacques|isbn=978-0-253-33203-5|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1993}}
*{{cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Joseph|title=Jewish History in Modern Times|year=1995|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=1-898723-06-0}}
* {{Cite book |title=A History of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Judah |last=Lipiński |first=Edward |publisher=Peeters |year=2020 |isbn=978-90-429-4212-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qGy6zQEACAAJ |series=Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta |volume=287}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Paul|authorlink=Paul Johnson (writer)|title=A History of the Jews|year=1987|publisher=HarperCollins|location=New York|isbn=0-06-091533-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=McNutt |first=Paula |title=Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-664-22265-9 }}
* {{cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Dana Evan|editor1-last=Neusner|editor1-first=Jacob|editor2-last=Avery-Peck|editor2-first=Alan J.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism|year=2003|origyear=2000|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Malden, Massachusetts|isbn=1-57718-058-5|chapter=Reform Judaism}}
* {{harvc |last=Stager |first=Lawrence |c=Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel |in=Coogan |year=1998}}
* {{cite book|last=Katz|first=Shmuel|title=Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine|year=1974|publisher=Taylor Productions|isbn=0-929093-13-5}}
* {{Cite book |chapter=The Tribes That Were Not Lost: The Samaritans |last=Tobolowsky |first=Andrew |year=2022 |title=The Myth of the Twelve Tribes of Israel: New Identities Across Time and Space |publisher=Cambridge University Press |place=Cambridge |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/myth-of-the-twelve-tribes-of-israel/tribes-that-were-not-lost/BAEE997B6F05C26B49864979B0705E9D |pages=69–70; 73–75 |doi=10.1017/9781009091435.003 |isbn=978-1-316-51494-8}}
* ] (1984). ''The Jews of Islam''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8
* Lewis, Bernard (1999). ''Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice''. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7
* {{cite journal|last=Littman|first=David|authorlink=David Littman (historian)|year=1979|title=Jews Under Muslim Rule: The Case Of Persia|journal=The Wiener Library Bulletin|volume=XXXII|issue=New series 49/50|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Neusner|first=Jacob|title=Studying Classical Judaism: A Primer|year=1991|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=0-664-25136-6}}
* ] (1974). ''The History of Anti-semitism.'' New York: The Vanguard Press.
* Ruderman, David B. ''Early Modern Jewry: A New Cultural History'' (Princeton University Press; 2010) 326 pages. Examines print culture, religion, and other realms in a history emphasizing the links among early modern Jewish communities from Venice and Kraków to Amsterdam and Smyrna.
* {{cite book|last=Sharot|first=Stephen|editor1-last=Endelman|editor1-first=Todd M.|title=Comparing Jewish Societies|year=1997|publisher=University of Michigan Press|location=Ann Arbor, Mich.|isbn=0-472-06592-0|chapter=Religious Syncretism and Religious Distinctiveness: A Comparative Analysis of Pre-Modern Jewish Communities}}
* ] (1979). ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0
* {{cite book|last=Sweeney|first=Marvin A.|editor1-last=Neusner|editor1-first=Jacob|editor2-last=Avery-Peck|editor2-first=Alan J.|title=The Blackwell Companion to Judaism|year=2003|origyear=2000|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Malden, Massachusetts|isbn=1-57718-058-5|chapter=The Religious World of Ancient Israel to 586&nbsp;BCE}}
{{Refend}} {{Refend}}


==External links== == External links ==
{{Sister project links}} {{Sister project links |wikt=Jew |s=Portal:Judaism |v=Portal:Jewish Studies |d=Q7325}}
* of the ] * of the ]
* of the ] * of the ]
* of '']''
*
* of the ] * of the ]
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323194258/http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/0415236614/resources/indi.asp |date=23 March 2012 }}
* of the ]
* of the ]
*
* {{dmoz|Society/Ethnicity/Jewish}}


{{Jews and Judaism}} {{Jews and Judaism|state=expanded}}
{{Good article}}
{{Authority control}} {{Authority control}}


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Latest revision as of 03:45, 15 December 2024

Ethnoreligious group and nation "Jew" redirects here. For the word, see Jew (word). For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation).

Ethnic group
Jews
יְהוּדִים‬‎ (Yehudim)
The Star of David, a common symbol of the Jewish people
Total population
15.8 million
Enlarged population (includes anyone with a Jewish parent):
20 million
(2022, est.)
Regions with significant populations
Israel (including occupied territories)7,300,000–7,455,200
United States6,300,000–7,500,000
France438,500–550,000
Canada400,000–450,000
United Kingdom312,000–330,000
Argentina171,000–240,000
Russia132,000–290,000
Germany125,000–175,000
Australia117,200–130,000
Brazil90,000–120,000
South Africa51,000–75,000
Hungary46,500–75,000
Ukraine40,000–90,000
Mexico40,000–45,000
Netherlands29,700–43,000
Belgium28,800–35,000
Italy27,000–34,000
Switzerland18,800–22,000
Uruguay16,300–20,000
Chile15,800–20,000
Sweden14,900–20,000
Turkey14,300–17,500
Spain12,900–16,000
Austria10,300–14,000
Panama10,000–11,000
Languages
Religion
Majority:
Related ethnic groups
שָׁלוֹם This article contains Hebrew text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Hebrew letters.
Part of a series on
Jews and Judaism
Religion
Texts
Tanakh
Talmud
Rabbinic
History
General
Ancient Israel
Second Temple period
Rabbinic period and Middle Ages
Modern era
Communities
Related groups
Population
Land of Israel
Africa
Asia
Europe
Northern America
Latin America and Caribbean
Oceania
Denominations
Culture
Customs
Music
Art
Cuisine
Literature
Languages
Politics
Jewish political movements
Zionism

The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים‎, ISO 259-2: Yehudim, Israeli pronunciation: [jehuˈdim]) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites of the historical kingdoms of Israel and Judah, and whose traditional religion is Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, religion, and community are highly interrelated, as Judaism is an ethnic religion, but not all ethnic Jews practice Judaism. Despite this, religious Jews regard individuals who have formally converted to Judaism as Jews.

The Israelites emerged from within the Canaanite population to establish the Iron Age kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Judaism emerged from the Israelite religion of Yahwism by the late 6th century BCE, with a theology considered by religious Jews to be the expression of a covenant with God established with the Israelites, their ancestors. The Babylonian captivity of Judahites following their kingdom's destruction, the movement of Jewish groups around the Mediterranean in the Hellenistic period, and subsequent periods of conflict and violent dispersion, such as the Jewish–Roman wars, gave rise to the Jewish diaspora. The Jewish diaspora is a wide dispersion of Jewish communities across the world that have maintained their sense of Jewish history, identity and culture.

In the following millennia, Jewish diaspora communities coalesced into three major ethnic subdivisions according to where their ancestors settled: the Ashkenazim (Central and Eastern Europe), the Sephardim (Iberian Peninsula), and the Mizrahim (Middle East and North Africa). While these three major divisions account for most of the world's Jews, there are other smaller Jewish groups outside of the three. Prior to World War II, the global Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million, representing around 0.7% of the world's population at that time. During World War II, approximately 6 million Jews throughout Europe were systematically murdered by Nazi Germany in a genocide known as the Holocaust. Since then, the population has slowly risen again, and as of 2021, was estimated to be at 15.2 million by the demographer Sergio Della Pergola or less than 0.2% of the total world population in 2012. Today, over 85% of Jews live in Israel or the United States. Israel, whose population is 73.9% Jewish, is the only country where Jews comprise more than 2.5% of the population.

Jews have significantly influenced and contributed to the development and growth of human progress in many fields, both historically and in modern times, including in science and technology, philosophy, ethics, literature, governance, business, art, music, comedy, theatre, cinema, architecture, food, medicine, and religion. Jews wrote the Bible, founded Christianity, and had an indirect but profound influence on Islam. In these ways, Jews have also played a significant role in the development of Western culture.

Name and etymology

Main article: Jew (word) For a more comprehensive list, see List of Jewish ethnonyms.

The term "Jew" is derived from the Hebrew word יְהוּדִי Yehudi, with the plural יְהוּדִים Yehudim. Endonyms in other Jewish languages include the Ladino ג׳ודיו Djudio (plural ג׳ודיוס, Djudios) and the Yiddish ייִד Yid (plural ייִדן Yidn). Originally, in ancient times, Yehudi (Jew) was used to describe the inhabitants of the Israelite kingdom of Judah. It is also used to distinguish their descendants from the gentiles and the Samaritans. According to the Hebrew Bible, these inhabitants predominately descend from the tribe of Judah from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. Together the tribe of Judah and the tribe of Benjamin made up the Kingdom of Judah.

Though Genesis 29:35 and 49:8 connect "Judah" with the verb yada, meaning "praise", scholars generally agree that "Judah" most likely derives from the name of a Levantine geographic region dominated by gorges and ravines. In ancient times, Jewish people as a whole were called Hebrews or Israelites until the Babylonian Exile. After the Exile, the term Yehudi (Jew) was used for all followers of Judaism because the survivors of the Exile (who were the former residents of the Kingdom of Judah) were the only Israelites that had kept their distinct identity as the ten tribes from the northern Kingdom of Israel had been scattered and assimilated into other populations. The gradual ethnonymic shift from "Israelites" to "Jews", regardless of their descent from Judah, although not contained in the Torah, is made explicit in the Book of Esther (4th century BCE) of the Tanakh. Some modern scholars disagree with the conflation, based on the works of Josephus, Philo and Apostle Paul.

The English word "Jew" is a derivation of Middle English Gyw, Iewe. The latter was loaned from the Old French giu, which itself evolved from the earlier juieu, which in turn derived from judieu/iudieu which through elision had dropped the letter "d" from the Medieval Latin Iudaeus, which, like the New Testament Greek term Ioudaios, meant both "Jew" and "Judean" / "of Judea". The Greek term was a loan from Aramaic *yahūdāy, corresponding to Hebrew יְהוּדִי Yehudi.

Some scholars prefer translating Ioudaios as "Judean" in the Bible since it is more precise, denotes the community's origins and prevents readers from engaging in antisemitic eisegesis. Others disagree, believing that it erases the Jewish identity of Biblical characters such as Jesus. Daniel R. Schwartz distinguishes "Judean" and "Jew". Here, "Judean" refers to the inhabitants of Judea, which encompassed southern Palestine. Meanwhile, "Jew" refers to the descendants of Israelites that adhere to Judaism. Converts are included in the definition. But Shaye J.D. Cohen argues that "Judean" should include believers of the Judean God and allies of the Judean state. Troy W. Martin similarly argues that biblical Jewishness is not dependent on ancestry but instead, is based on adherence to 'covenantal circumcision' (Genesis 17:9–14).

The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., يَهُودِيّ yahūdī (sg.), al-yahūd (pl.), in Arabic, "Jude" in German, "judeu" in Portuguese, "Juif" (m.)/"Juive" (f.) in French, "jøde" in Danish and Norwegian, "judío/a" in Spanish, "jood" in Dutch, "żyd" in Polish etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jew, e.g., in Italian (Ebreo), in Persian ("Ebri/Ebrani" (Persian: عبری/عبرانی)) and Russian (Еврей, Yevrey). The German word "Jude" is pronounced [ˈjuːdə], the corresponding adjective "jüdisch" [ˈjyːdɪʃ] (Jewish) is the origin of the word "Yiddish".

According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, fourth edition (2000),

It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun Jew, in phrases such as Jew lawyer or Jew ethics, is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as There are now several Jews on the council, which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like Jewish people or persons of Jewish background may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun.

Identity

Main articles: Who is a Jew? and Jewish identity
Map of Canaan

Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation, an ethnicity, a religion, and a culture, making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used. Generally, in modern secular usage, Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion.

Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. These definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the Oral Torah into the Babylonian Talmud, around 200 CE. Interpretations by Jewish sages of sections of the Tanakh – such as Deuteronomy 7:1–5, which forbade intermarriage between their Israelite ancestors and seven non-Israelite nations: "for that would turn away your children from following me, to serve other gods" – are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and gentiles. Leviticus 24:10 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is "of the community of Israel." This is complemented by Ezra 10:2–3, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children. A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period. Another argument is that the rabbis changed the law of patrilineal descent to matrilineal descent due to the widespread rape of Jewish women by Roman soldiers. Since the anti-religious Haskalah movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.

According to historian Shaye J. D. Cohen, the status of the offspring of mixed marriages was determined patrilineally in the Bible. He brings two likely explanations for the change in Mishnaic times: first, the Mishnah may have been applying the same logic to mixed marriages as it had applied to other mixtures (Kil'ayim). Thus, a mixed marriage is forbidden as is the union of a horse and a donkey, and in both unions the offspring are judged matrilineally. Second, the Tannaim may have been influenced by Roman law, which dictated that when a parent could not contract a legal marriage, offspring would follow the mother. Rabbi Rivon Krygier follows a similar reasoning, arguing that Jewish descent had formerly passed through the patrilineal descent and the law of matrilineal descent had its roots in the Roman legal system.

Origins

Further information: Canaan, Israelites, Yahwism, Origins of Judaism, and History of ancient Israel and Judah
Egyptian depiction of the visit of Western Asiatics in colorful garments, labeled as Aamu. The painting is from the tomb of a 12th dynasty official Khnumhotep II at Beni Hasan, and dated to c. 1900 BCE. Their nearest Biblical contemporaries were the earliest of Hebrews, such as Abraham and Joseph.
Depiction of King Jehu, tenth king of the northern Kingdom of Israel, on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, 841–840 BCE. This is "the only portrayal we have in ancient Near Eastern art of an Israelite or Judaean monarch".

The prehistory and ethnogenesis of the Jews are closely intertwined with archaeology, biology, historical textual records, mythology, and religious literature. The ethnic stock to which Jews originally trace their ancestry was a confederation of Iron Age Semitic-speaking tribes known as the Israelites that inhabited a part of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods. Modern Jews are named after and also descended from the southern Israelite Kingdom of Judah. Gary A. Rendsburg links the early Canaanite nomadic pastoralists confederation to the Shasu known to the Egyptians around the 15th century BCE.

According to the Hebrew Bible narrative, Jewish ancestry is traced back to the Biblical patriarchs such as Abraham, his son Isaac, Isaac's son Jacob, and the Biblical matriarchs Sarah, Rebecca, Leah, and Rachel, who lived in Canaan. The Twelve Tribes are described as descending from the twelve sons of Jacob. Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacob's son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs' descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, after which the Israelites conquered Canaan under Moses' successor Joshua, went through the period of the Biblical judges after the death of Joshua, then through the mediation of Samuel became subject to a king, Saul, who was succeeded by David and then Solomon, after whom the United Monarchy ended and was split into a separate Kingdom of Israel and a Kingdom of Judah. The Kingdom of Judah is described as comprising the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, partially Levi, and later adding remnants of other tribes who migrated there from the northern Kingdom of Israel.

In the extra-biblical record, the Israelites become visible as a people between 1200 and 1000 BCE. There is well accepted archeological evidence referring to "Israel" in the Merneptah Stele, which dates to about 1200 BCE, and in the Mesha stele from 840 BCE. It is debated whether a period like that of the Biblical judges occurred and if there ever was a United Monarchy. There is further disagreement about the earliest existence of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their extent and power. Historians agree that a Kingdom of Israel existed by c. 900 BCE, there is a consensus that a Kingdom of Judah existed by c. 700 BCE at least, and recent excavations in Khirbet Qeiyafa have provided strong evidence for dating the Kingdom of Judah to the 10th century BCE. In 587 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II, King of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, besieged Jerusalem, destroyed the First Temple and deported parts of the Judahite population.

Scholars disagree regarding the extent to which the Bible should be accepted as a historical source for early Israelite history. Rendsburg states that there are two approximately equal groups of scholars who debate the historicity of the biblical narrative, the minimalists who largely reject it, and the maximalists who largely accept it, with the minimalists being the more vocal of the two.

Some of the leading minimalists reframe the biblical account as constituting the Israelites' inspiring national myth narrative, suggesting that according to the modern archaeological and historical account, the Israelites and their culture did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatristic—and later monotheistic—religion of Yahwism centered on Yahweh, one of the gods of the Canaanite pantheon. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of cultic practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group, setting them apart from other Canaanites. According to Dever, modern archaeologists have largely discarded the search for evidence of the biblical narrative surrounding the patriarchs and the exodus.

According to the maximalist position, the modern archaeological record independently points to a narrative which largely agrees with the biblical account. This narrative provides a testimony of the Israelites as a nomadic people known to the Egyptians as belonging to the Shasu. Over time these nomads left the desert and settled on the central mountain range of the land of Canaan, in simple semi-nomadic settlements in which pig bones are notably absent. This population gradually shifted from a tribal lifestyle to a monarchy. While the archaeological record of the ninth century BCE provides evidence for two monarchies, one in the south under a dynasty founded by a figure named David with its capital in Jerusalem, and one in the north under a dynasty founded by a figure named Omri with its capital in Samaria. It also points to an early monarchic period in which these regions shared material culture and religion, suggesting a common origin. Archaeological finds also provide evidence for the later cooperation of these two kingdoms in their coalition against Aram, and for their destructions by the Assyrians and later by the Babylonians.

Genetic studies on Jews show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the Middle East, and that they share certain genetic traits with other Gentile peoples of the Fertile Crescent. The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common gene pool dating back four millennia, as a marker of their common ancestral origin. Despite their long-term separation, Jewish communities maintained their unique commonalities, propensities, and sensibilities in culture, tradition, and language.

History

Main article: Jewish history For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Jewish history.
Tribes of Israel
The Tribes of Israel
Other tribes
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Israel and Judah

Further information: History of ancient Israel and Judah

The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the Merneptah Stele, which dates to around 1200 BCE. The majority of scholars agree that this text refers to the Israelites, a group that inhabited the central highlands of Canaan, where archaeological evidence shows that hundreds of small settlements were constructed between the 12th and 10th centuries BCE. The Israelites differentiated themselves from neighboring peoples through various distinct characteristics including religious practices, prohibition on intermarriage, and an emphasis on genealogy and family history.

In the 10th century BCE, two neighboring Israelite kingdoms—the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah—emerged. Since their inception, they shared ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious characteristics despite a complicated relationship. Israel, with its capital mostly in Samaria, was larger and wealthier, and soon developed into a regional power. In contrast, Judah, with its capital in Jerusalem, was less prosperous and covered a smaller, mostly mountainous territory. However, while in Israel the royal succession was often decided by a military coup d'état, resulting in several dynasty changes, political stability in Judah was much greater, as it was ruled by the House of David for the whole four centuries of its existence.

Around 720 BCE, Kingdom of Israel was destroyed when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which came to dominate the ancient Near East. Under the Assyrian resettlement policy, a significant portion of the northern Israelite population was exiled to Mesopotamia and replaced by immigrants from the same region. During the same period, and throughout the 7th century BCE, the Kingdom of Judah, now under Assyrian vassalage, experienced a period of prosperity and witnessed a significant population growth. This prosperity continued until the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib devastated the region of Judah in response to a rebellion in the area, ultimately halting at Jerusalem. Later in the same century, the Assyrians were defeated by the rising Neo-Babylonian Empire, and Judah became its vassal. In 587 BCE, following a revolt in Judah, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II besieged and destroyed Jerusalem and the First Temple, putting an end to the kingdom. The majority of Jerusalem's residents, including the kingdom's elite, were exiled to Babylon.

Second Temple period

Further information: Second Temple period and Jewish–Roman wars

According to the Book of Ezra, the Persian Cyrus the Great ended the Babylonian exile in 538 BCE, the year after he captured Babylon. The exile ended with the return under Zerubbabel the Prince (so called because he was a descendant of the royal line of David) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction of the Second Temple circa 521–516 BCE. As part of the Persian Empire, the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (Yehud Medinata), with a smaller territory and a reduced population.

Judea was under control of the Achaemenids until the fall of their empire in c. 333 BCE to Alexander the Great. After several centuries under foreign imperial rule, the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire resulted in an independent Hasmonean kingdom, under which the Jews once again enjoyed political independence for a period spanning from 110 to 63 BCE. Under Hasmonean rule the boundaries of their kingdom were expanded to include not only the land of the historical kingdom of Judah, but also the Galilee and Transjordan. In the beginning of this process the Idumeans, who had infiltrated southern Judea after the destruction of the First Temple, were converted en masse. In 63 BCE, Judea was conquered by the Romans. From 37 BCE to 6 CE, the Romans allowed the Jews to maintain some degree of independence by installing the Herodian dynasty as vassal kings. However, Judea eventually came directly under Roman control and was incorporated into the Roman Empire as the province of Judaea.

The Jewish–Roman wars, a series of unsuccessful revolts against Roman rule during the first and second centuries CE, had significant and disastrous consequences for the Jewish population of Judaea. The First Jewish-Roman War (66–73 CE) culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple. The severely reduced Jewish population of Judaea was denied any kind of political self-government. A few generations later, the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) erupted, and its brutal suppression by the Romans led to the depopulation of Judea. Following the revolt, Jews were forbidden from residing in the vicinity of Jerusalem, and the Jewish demographic center in Judaea shifted to Galilee. Similar upheavals impacted the Jewish communities in the empire's eastern provinces during the Diaspora Revolt (115–117 CE), leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in Libya, Cyprus and Egypt, including the highly influential community in Alexandria.

A Roman coin inscribed Ivdaea Capta, or "captive Judea" (71 CE), representing Judea as a seated mourning woman (right), and a Jewish captive with hands tied (left)

The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE brought profound changes to Judaism. With the Temple's central place in Jewish worship gone, religious practices shifted towards prayer, Torah study (including Oral Torah), and communal gatherings in synagogues. Judaism also lost much of its sectarian nature. Two of the three main sects that flourished during the late Second Temple period, namely the Sadducees and Essenes, eventually disappeared, while Pharisaic beliefs became the foundational, liturgical, and ritualistic basis of Rabbinic Judaism, which emerged as the prevailing form of Judaism since late antiquity.

Babylon and Rome

Further information: History of the Jews in the Roman Empire and Talmudic academies in Babylonia

The Jewish diaspora existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations. In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in Joachin's ration tablets, listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by Nebuchadnezzar II, and further evidence are the Al-Yahudu tablets, dated to the 6th–5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the First Temple, though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE. In Egypt, the documents from Elephantine reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th–4th centuries BCE, and according to Josephus the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by Alexander the Great. By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia ("Babylonia" in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia, Cyrene, and, beginning in the middle of the first century BCE, in the city of Rome. Later, in the first centuries CE, as a result of the Jewish-Roman Wars, a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the Roman Empire as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia.

After the Bar Kokhba revolt, the Jewish population in Judaea, now significantly reduced in size, made efforts to recover from the revolt's devastating effects, but never fully regained its previous strength. In the second to fourth centuries CE, the region of Galilee emerged as the new center of Jewish life in Syria Palaestina, experiencing a cultural and demographic flourishing. It was in this period that two central rabbinic texts, the Mishnah and the Jerusalem Talmud, were composed. However, as the Roman Empire was replaced by the Christianized Byzantine Empire under Constantine, Jews came to be persecuted by the church and the authorities, and many immigrated to communities in the diaspora. In the fourth century CE, Jews are believed to have lost their position as the majority in Syria Palaestina.

The long-established Jewish community of Mesopotamia, which had been living under Parthian and later Sasanian rule, beyond the confines of the Roman Empire, became an important center of Jewish study as Judea's Jewish population declined. Estimates often place the Babylonian Jewish community of the 3rd to 7th centuries at around one million, making it the largest Jewish diaspora community of that period. Under the political leadership of the exilarch, who was regarded as a royal heir of the House of David, this community had an autonomous status and served as a place of refuge for the Jews of Syria Palaestina. A number of significant Talmudic academies, such as the Nehardea, Pumbedita, and Sura academies, were established in Mesopotamia, and many important Amoraim were active there. The Babylonian Talmud, a centerpiece of Jewish religious law, was compiled in Babylonia in the 3rd to 6th centuries.

Middle Ages

Further information: History of the Jews in Europe, History of European Jews in the Middle Ages, Mizrahi Jews, and Sephardi Jews

Jewish diaspora communities are generally described to have coalesced into three major ethnic subdivisions according to where their ancestors settled: the Ashkenazim (initially in the Rhineland and France), the Sephardim (initially in the Iberian Peninsula), and the Mizrahim (Middle East and North Africa). Romaniote Jews, Tunisian Jews, Yemenite Jews, Egyptian Jews, Ethiopian Jews, Bukharan Jews, Mountain Jews, and other groups also predated the arrival of the Sephardic diaspora.

Despite experiencing repeated waves of persecution, Ashkenazi Jews in Western Europe worked in a variety of fields, making an impact on their communities' economy and societies. In Francia, for example, figures like Isaac Judaeus and Armentarius occupied prominent social and economic positions. However, Jews were frequently the subjects of discriminatory laws, segregation, blood libels and pogroms, which culminated in events like the Rhineland Massacres (1066) and the expulsion of Jews from England (1290). As a result, Ashkenazi Jews were gradually pushed eastwards to Poland, Lithuania and Russia.

During the same period, Jewish communities in the Middle East thrived under Islamic rule, especially in cities like Baghdad, Cairo, and Damascus. In Babylonia, from the 7th to 11th centuries the Pumbedita and Sura academies led the Arab and to an extant the entire Jewish world. The deans and students of said academies defined the Geonic period in Jewish history. Following this period were the Rishonim who lived from the 11th to 15th centuries. Like their European counterparts, Jews in the Middle East and North Africa also faced periods of persecution and discriminatory policies, with the Almohad Caliphate in North Africa and Iberia issuing forced conversion decrees, causing Jews such as Maimonides to seek safety in other regions.

Initially, under Visigoth rule, Jews in the Iberian Peninsula faced persecutions, but their circumstances changed dramatically under Islamic rule. During this period, they thrived in a golden age, marked by significant intellectual and cultural contributions in fields such as philosophy, medicine, and literature by figures such as Samuel ibn Naghrillah, Judah Halevi and Solomon ibn Gabirol. However, in the 12th to 15th centuries, the Iberian Peninsula witnessed a rise in antisemitism, leading to persecutions, anti-Jewish laws, massacres and forced conversions (peaking in 1391), and the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition that same year. After the completion of the Reconquista and the issuance of the Alhambra Decree by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492, the Jews of Spain were forced to choose: convert to Christianity or be expelled. As a result, around 200,000 Jews were expelled from Spain, seeking refuge in places such as the Ottoman Empire, North Africa, Italy, the Netherlands and India. A similar fate awaited the Jews of Portugal a few years later. Some Jews chose to remain, and pretended to practice Catholicism. These Jews would form the members of Crypto-Judaism.

Modern period

Further information: Zionism, The Holocaust, and History of Israel (1948–present)

In the 19th century, when Jews in Western Europe were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the Pale of Settlement faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread pogroms. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in Central and Eastern Europe as a national revival movement, aiming to re-establish a Jewish polity in the Land of Israel, an endeavor to restore the Jewish people back to their ancestral homeland in order to stop the exoduses and persecutions that have plagued their history. This led to waves of Jewish migration to Ottoman-controlled Palestine. Theodor Herzl, who is considered the father of political Zionism, offered his vision of a future Jewish state in his 1896 book Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State); a year later, he presided over the First Zionist Congress.

The antisemitism that inflicted Jewish communities in Europe also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924. The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were Albert Einstein and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Many Nobel Prize winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.

Map of the Jewish diaspora:
  Israel   + 1,000,000   + 100,000   + 10,000   + 1,000

When Adolf Hitler and the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, the situation for Jews deteriorated rapidly. Many Jews fled from Europe to Mandatory Palestine, the United States, and the Soviet Union as a result of racial anti-Semitic laws, economic difficulties, and the fear of an impending war. World War II started in 1939, and by 1941, Hitler occupied almost all of Europe. Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the Final Solution—an extensive, organized effort with an unprecedented scope intended to annihilate the Jewish people—began, and resulted in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa. In Poland, three million were murdered in gas chambers in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the Auschwitz camp complex alone. The Holocaust is the name given to this genocide, in which six million Jews were systematically murdered.

Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On 14 May 1948, upon the termination of the mandate, David Ben-Gurion declared the creation of the State of Israel, a Jewish and democratic state in the Land of Israel. Immediately afterwards, all neighboring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed IDF resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of Aliyah from all over the world.

Culture

Main article: Jewish culture

Religion

Main article: Judaism See also: Jewish atheism and Jewish secularism
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The Jewish people and the religion of Judaism are strongly interrelated. Converts to Judaism typically have a status within the Jewish ethnos equal to those born into it. However, several converts to Judaism, as well as ex-Jews, have claimed that converts are treated as second-class Jews by many born Jews. Conversion is not encouraged by mainstream Judaism, and it is considered a difficult task. A significant portion of conversions are undertaken by children of mixed marriages, or would-be or current spouses of Jews.

The Hebrew Bible, a religious interpretation of the traditions and early history of the Jews, established the first of the Abrahamic religions, which are now practiced by 54 percent of the world. Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life," which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world, in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah), in Islamic Spain and Portugal, in North Africa and the Middle East, India, China, or the contemporary United States and Israel, cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, and still others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities.

Languages

Main article: Jewish languages

Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed lashon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), the language in which most of the Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the 5th century BCE, Aramaic, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea. By the 3rd century BCE, some Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek. Others, such as in the Jewish communities of Asoristan, known to Jews as Babylonia, were speaking Hebrew and Aramaic, the languages of the Babylonian Talmud. Dialects of these same languages were also used by the Jews of Syria Palaestina at that time.

For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branches that became independent languages. Yiddish is the Judaeo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe. Ladino is the Judaeo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula. Due to many factors, including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities, including Judaeo-Georgian, Judaeo-Arabic, Judaeo-Berber, Krymchak, Judaeo-Malayalam and many others, have largely fallen out of use.

Tombstone of the Maharal in the Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague. The tombstones are inscribed in Hebrew.

For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the Sabbath. Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by Eliezer ben Yehuda, who arrived in Palestine in 1881. It had not been used as a mother tongue since Tannaic times. Modern Hebrew is designated as the "State language" of Israel.

Despite efforts to revive Hebrew as the national language of the Jewish people, knowledge of the language is not commonly possessed by Jews worldwide and English has emerged as the lingua franca of the Jewish diaspora. Although many Jews once had sufficient knowledge of Hebrew to study the classic literature, and Jewish languages like Yiddish and Ladino were commonly used as recently as the early 20th century, most Jews lack such knowledge today and English has by and large superseded most Jewish vernaculars. The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English, and Russian. Some Romance languages, particularly French and Spanish, are also widely used. Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language, but it is far less used today following the Holocaust and the adoption of Modern Hebrew by the Zionist movement and the State of Israel. In some places, the mother language of the Jewish community differs from that of the general population or the dominant group. For example, in Quebec, the Ashkenazic majority has adopted English, while the Sephardic minority uses French as its primary language. Similarly, South African Jews adopted English rather than Afrikaans. Due to both Czarist and Soviet policies, Russian has superseded Yiddish as the language of Russian Jews, but these policies have also affected neighboring communities. Today, Russian is the first language for many Jewish communities in a number of Post-Soviet states, such as Ukraine and Uzbekistan, as well as for Ashkenazic Jews in Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Tajikistan. Although communities in North Africa today are small and dwindling, Jews there had shifted from a multilingual group to a monolingual one (or nearly so), speaking French in Algeria, Morocco, and the city of Tunis, while most North Africans continue to use Arabic or Berber as their mother tongue.

Leadership

Main article: Jewish leadership

There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine. Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues. Today, many countries have a Chief Rabbi who serves as a representative of that country's Jewry. Although many Hasidic Jews follow a certain hereditary Hasidic dynasty, there is no one commonly accepted leader of all Hasidic Jews. Many Jews believe that the Messiah will act a unifying leader for Jews and the entire world.

Theories on ancient Jewish national identity

Bible manuscript in Hebrew, 14th century. Hebrew language and alphabet were the cornerstones of the Jewish national identity in antiquity.

A number of modern scholars of nationalism support the existence of Jewish national identity in antiquity. One of them is David Goodblatt, who generally believes in the existence of nationalism before the modern period. In his view, the Bible, the parabiblical literature and the Jewish national history provide the base for a Jewish collective identity. Although many of the ancient Jews were illiterate (as were their neighbors), their national narrative was reinforced through public readings. The Hebrew language also constructed and preserved national identity. Although it was not widely spoken after the 5th century BCE, Goodblatt states:

the mere presence of the language in spoken or written form could invoke the concept of a Jewish national identity. Even if one knew no Hebrew or was illiterate, one could recognize that a group of signs was in Hebrew script. ... It was the language of the Israelite ancestors, the national literature, and the national religion. As such it was inseparable from the national identity. Indeed its mere presence in visual or aural medium could invoke that identity.

Anthony D. Smith, an historical sociologist considered one of the founders of the interdisciplinary field of nationalism studies, wrote that the Jews of the late Second Temple period provide "a closer approximation to the ideal type of the nation than perhaps anywhere else in the ancient world." He adds that this observation "must make us wary of pronouncing too readily against the possibility of the nation, and even a form of religious nationalism, before the onset of modernity." Agreeing with Smith, Goodblatt suggests omitting the qualifier "religious" from Smith's definition of ancient Jewish nationalism, noting that, according to Smith, a religious component in national memories and culture is common even in the modern era. This view is echoed by political scientist Tom Garvin, who writes that "something strangely like modern nationalism is documented for many peoples in medieval times and in classical times as well," citing the ancient Jews as one of several "obvious examples", alongside the classical Greeks and the Gaulish and British Celts.

Fergus Millar suggests that the sources of Jewish national identity and their early nationalist movements in the first and second centuries CE included several key elements: the Bible as both a national history and legal source, the Hebrew language as a national language, a system of law, and social institutions such as schools, synagogues, and Sabbath worship. Adrian Hastings argued that Jews are the "true proto-nation", that through the model of ancient Israel found in the Hebrew Bible, provided the world with the original concept of nationhood which later influenced Christian nations. However, following Jerusalem's destruction in the first century CE, Jews ceased to be a political entity and did not resemble a traditional nation-state for almost two millennia. Despite this, they maintained their national identity through collective memory, religion and sacred texts, even without land or political power, and remained a nation rather than just an ethnic group, eventually leading to the rise of Zionism and the establishment of Israel.

It is believed that Jewish nationalist sentiment in antiquity was encouraged because under foreign rule (Persians, Greeks, Romans) Jews were able to claim that they were an ancient nation. This claim was based on the preservation and reverence of their scriptures, the Hebrew language, the Temple and priesthood, and other traditions of their ancestors.

Demographics

Further information: Jewish population by country

Ethnic divisions

Main article: Jewish ethnic divisions
Ashkenazi Jews residing in the American colony (photo taken between 1900 and 1920)
Sephardi Jewish couple from Sarajevo in traditional clothing. Photo taken in 1900.
Yemenite Jew blows shofar, 1947

Within the world's Jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities was established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World, often at great distances from one another, resulting in effective and often long-term isolation. During the millennia of the Jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments: political, cultural, natural, and populational. Today, manifestations of these differences among the Jews can be observed in Jewish cultural expressions of each community, including Jewish linguistic diversity, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture.

Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the Ashkenazim and the Sephardim. Ashkenazim are so named in reference to their geographical origins (their ancestors' culture coalesced in the Rhineland, an area historically referred to by Jews as Ashkenaz). Similarly, Sephardim (Sefarad meaning "Spain" in Hebrew) are named in reference their origins in Iberia. The diverse groups of Jews of the Middle East and North Africa are often collectively referred to as Sephardim together with Sephardim proper for liturgical reasons having to do with their prayer rites. A common term for many of these non-Spanish Jews who are sometimes still broadly grouped as Sephardim is Mizrahim (lit. "easterners" in Hebrew). Nevertheless, Mizrahis and Sepharadim are usually ethnically distinct.

Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, Indian Jews such as the Bene Israel, Bnei Menashe, Cochin Jews, and Bene Ephraim; the Romaniotes of Greece; the Italian Jews ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the Teimanim from Yemen; various African Jews, including most numerously the Beta Israel of Ethiopia; and Chinese Jews, most notably the Kaifeng Jews, as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.

The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of North African, Central Asian, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are no closer related to each other than they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are Egyptian Jews, Iraqi Jews, Lebanese Jews, Kurdish Jews, Moroccan Jews, Libyan Jews, Syrian Jews, Bukharian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, Iranian Jews, Afghan Jews, and various others. The Teimanim from Yemen are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.

Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70 percent of Jews worldwide (and up to 90 percent prior to World War II and the Holocaust). As a result of their emigration from Europe, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents, in countries such as the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and Brazil. In France, the immigration of Jews from Algeria (Sephardim) has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim. Only in Israel is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a melting pot independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.

Genetic studies

Main article: Genetic studies on Jews

Y DNA studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths. In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly Middle Eastern. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in Eastern Europe, Germany, and the French Rhine Valley. This is consistent with Jewish traditions in placing most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East.

Conversely, the maternal lineages of Jewish populations, studied by looking at mitochondrial DNA, are generally more heterogeneous. Scholars such as Harry Ostrer and Raphael Falk believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel. In contrast, Behar has found evidence that about 40 percent of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin. The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect." Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of non-local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews, the authors conclude "Clearly, the differences between Jews and non-Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities. Hence, differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non-Jews are included in the comparisons." A study showed that 7% of Ashkenazi Jews have the haplogroup G2c, which is mainly found in Pashtuns and on lower scales all major Jewish groups, Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese.

Studies of autosomal DNA, which look at the entire DNA mixture, have become increasingly important as the technology develops. They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities, with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common. For Jewish populations of the diaspora, the genetic composition of Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Mizrahi Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Behar, the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is "consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant" and "the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the Old World". North African, Italian and others of Iberian origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non-Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular Moroccan Jews), who are closely related, the source of non-Jewish admixture is mainly Southern European, while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations. Behar et al. have remarked on a close relationship between Ashkenazi Jews and modern Italians. A 2001 study found that Jews were more closely related to groups of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks, and Armenians) than to their Arab neighbors, whose genetic signature was found in geographic patterns reflective of Islamic conquests.

The studies also show that Sephardic Bnei Anusim (descendants of the "anusim" who were forced to convert to Catholicism), which comprise up to 19.8 percent of the population of today's Iberia (Spain and Portugal) and at least 10 percent of the population of Ibero-America (Hispanic America and Brazil), have Sephardic Jewish ancestry within the last few centuries. The Bene Israel and Cochin Jews of India, Beta Israel of Ethiopia, and a portion of the Lemba people of Southern Africa, despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries, have also been thought to have some more remote ancient Jewish ancestry. Views on the Lemba have changed and genetic Y-DNA analyses in the 2000s have established a partially Middle-Eastern origin for a portion of the male Lemba population but have been unable to narrow this down further.

Population centers

For a more comprehensive list, see Jewish population by city.
New York City is home to 960,000 Jews, making it the largest Jewish community outside of Israel.

Although historically, Jews have been found all over the world, in the decades since World War II and the establishment of Israel, they have increasingly concentrated in a small number of countries. In 2021, Israel and the United States together accounted for over 85 percent of the global Jewish population, with approximately 45.3% and 39.6% of the world's Jews, respectively. More than half (51.2%) of world Jewry resides in just ten metropolitan areas. As of 2021, these ten areas were Tel Aviv, New York, Jerusalem, Haifa, Los Angeles, Miami, Philadelphia, Paris, Washington, and Chicago. The Tel Aviv metro area has the highest percent of Jews among the total population (94.8%), followed by Jerusalem (72.3%), Haifa (73.1%), and Beersheba (60.4%), the balance mostly being Israeli Arabs. Outside Israel, the highest percent of Jews in a metropolitan area was in New York (10.8%), followed by Miami (8.7%), Philadelphia (6.8%), San Francisco (5.1%), Washington (4.7%), Los Angeles (4.7%), Toronto (4.5%), and Baltimore (4.1%).

As of 2010, there were nearly 14 million Jews around the world, roughly 0.2% of the world's population at the time. According to the 2007 estimates of The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute, the world's Jewish population is 13.2 million. This statistic incorporates both practicing Jews affiliated with synagogues and the Jewish community, and approximately 4.5 million unaffiliated and secular Jews.

According to Sergio Della Pergola, a demographer of the Jewish population, in 2021 there were about 6.8 million Jews in Israel, 6 million in the United States, and 2.3 million in the rest of the world.

Israel

Main article: Israeli Jews
Jewish people in Jerusalem, Israel

Israel, the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens. Israel was established as an independent democratic and Jewish state on 14 May 1948. Of the 120 members in its parliament, the Knesset, as of 2016, 14 members of the Knesset are Arab citizens of Israel (not including the Druze), most representing Arab political parties. One of Israel's Supreme Court judges is also an Arab citizen of Israel.

Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million. Currently, Jews account for 75.4 percent of the Israeli population, or 6 million people. The early years of the State of Israel were marked by the mass immigration of Holocaust survivors in the aftermath of the Holocaust and Jews fleeing Arab lands. Israel also has a large population of Ethiopian Jews, many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the Soviet Union. This period also saw an increase in immigration to Israel from Western Europe, Latin America, and North America.

A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including Indian Jews and others, as well as some descendants of Ashkenazi Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the United States, Argentina, Australia, Chile, and South Africa. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, because of economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing Arab–Israeli conflict. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as yordim.

Diaspora (outside Israel)

Main article: Jewish diaspora
In this Rosh Hashana greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews fled the pogroms of the Russian Empire to the safety of the U.S. between 1881 and 1924.
A menorah dominating the main square in Birobidzhan. An estimated 70,000 Jews live in Siberia.

The waves of immigration to the United States and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century, the founding of Zionism and later events, including pogroms in Imperial Russia (mostly within the Pale of Settlement in present-day Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus and eastern Poland), the massacre of European Jewry during the Holocaust, and the founding of the state of Israel, with the subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century.

More than half of the Jews live in the Diaspora (see Population table). Currently, the largest Jewish community outside Israel, and either the largest or second-largest Jewish community in the world, is located in the United States, with 6 million to 7.5 million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in Canada (315,000), Argentina (180,000–300,000), and Brazil (196,000–600,000), and smaller populations in Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and several other countries (see History of the Jews in Latin America). According to a 2010 Pew Research Center study, about 470,000 people of Jewish heritage live in Latin America and the Caribbean. Demographers disagree on whether the United States has a larger Jewish population than Israel, with many maintaining that Israel surpassed the United States in Jewish population during the 2000s, while others maintain that the United States still has the largest Jewish population in the world. Currently, a major national Jewish population survey is planned to ascertain whether or not Israel has overtaken the United States in Jewish population.

The Jewish Zionist Youth Movement in Tallinn, Estonia, on 1 September 1933

Western Europe's largest Jewish community, and the third-largest Jewish community in the world, can be found in France, home to between 483,000 and 500,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African countries such as Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (or their descendants). The United Kingdom has a Jewish community of 292,000. In Eastern Europe, the exact figures are difficult to establish. The number of Jews in Russia varies widely according to whether a source uses census data (which requires a person to choose a single nationality among choices that include "Russian" and "Jewish") or eligibility for immigration to Israel (which requires that a person have one or more Jewish grandparents). According to the latter criteria, the heads of the Russian Jewish community assert that up to 1.5 million Russians are eligible for aliyah. In Germany, the 102,000 Jews registered with the Jewish community are a slowly declining population, despite the immigration of tens of thousands of Jews from the former Soviet Union since the fall of the Berlin Wall. Thousands of Israelis also live in Germany, either permanently or temporarily, for economic reasons.

Prior to 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands which now make up the Arab world (excluding Israel). Of these, just under two-thirds lived in the French-controlled Maghreb region, 15 to 20 percent in the Kingdom of Iraq, approximately 10 percent in the Kingdom of Egypt and approximately 7 percent in the Kingdom of Yemen. A further 200,000 lived in Pahlavi Iran and the Republic of Turkey. Today, around 26,000 Jews live in Arab countries and around 30,000 in Iran and Turkey. A small-scale exodus had begun in many countries in the early decades of the 20th century, although the only substantial aliyah came from Yemen and Syria. The exodus from Arab and Muslim countries took place primarily from 1948. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily in Iraq, Yemen and Libya, with up to 90 percent of these communities leaving within a few years. The peak of the exodus from Egypt occurred in 1956. The exodus in the Maghreb countries peaked in the 1960s. Lebanon was the only Arab country to see a temporary increase in its Jewish population during this period, due to an influx of refugees from other Arab countries, although by the mid-1970s the Jewish community of Lebanon had also dwindled. In the aftermath of the exodus wave from Arab states, an additional migration of Iranian Jews peaked in the 1980s when around 80 percent of Iranian Jews left the country.

Outside Europe, the Americas, the Middle East, and the rest of Asia, there are significant Jewish populations in Australia (112,500) and South Africa (70,000). There is also a 6,800-strong community in New Zealand.

Demographic changes

Main article: Historical Jewish population comparisons

Assimilation

Main articles: Jewish assimilation and Interfaith marriage in Judaism

Since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identity. Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods, with some Jewish communities, for example the Kaifeng Jews of China, disappearing entirely. The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see Haskalah) and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 19th century, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, secular society. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.

Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely: In the United States, it is just under 50 percent, in the United Kingdom, around 53 percent; in France; around 30 percent, and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10 percent. In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate with Jewish religious practice. The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.

War and persecution

Further information: Persecution of Jews, Antisemitism, and Jewish military history
The Roman Emperor Nero sends Vespasian with an army to destroy the Jews, 69 CE.

The Jewish people and Judaism have experienced various persecutions throughout Jewish history. During Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, the Roman Empire (in its later phases known as the Byzantine Empire) repeatedly repressed the Jewish population, first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan Roman era and later by officially establishing them as second-class citizens during the Christian Roman era.

According to James Carroll, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."

Later in medieval Western Europe, further persecutions of Jews by Christians occurred, notably during the Crusades—when Jews all over Germany were massacred—and in a series of expulsions from the Kingdom of England, Germany, and France. Then there occurred the largest expulsion of all, when Spain and Portugal, after the Reconquista (the Catholic Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula), expelled both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling Muslim Moors.

In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos.

World War I poster showing a soldier cutting the bonds from a Jewish man, who says, "You have cut my bonds and set me free—now let me help you set others free!"

Islam and Judaism have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religions and administer their internal affairs, but they were subject to certain conditions. They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state. Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims. Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by Bernard Lewis as "most degrading" was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Quran or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic. On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.

Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al-Andalus in the 12th century, as well as in Islamic Persia, and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as mellahs beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century. In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti-Zionist publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as Hezbollah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish Refah Partisi."

Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from expulsion to outright genocide; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The history of antisemitism includes the First Crusade which resulted in the massacre of Jews; the Spanish Inquisition (led by Tomás de Torquemada) and the Portuguese Inquisition, with their persecution and autos-da-fé against the New Christians and Marrano Jews; the Bohdan Chmielnicki Cossack massacres in Ukraine; the Pogroms backed by the Russian Tsars; as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled. According to a 2008 study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, 19.8 percent of the modern Iberian population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry, indicating that the number of conversos may have been much higher than originally thought.

Jews in Minsk, 1941. Before World War II, some 40 percent of the population was Jewish. By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors.

The persecution reached a peak in Nazi Germany's Final Solution, which led to the Holocaust and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews. Of the world's 16 million Jews in 1939, almost 40% were murdered in the Holocaust. The Holocaust—the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in European controlled North Africa) and other minority groups of Europe during World War II by Germany and its collaborators—remains the most notable modern-day persecution of Jews. The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II. Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease. Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in Eastern Europe, specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings. Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of kilometres by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were murdered in gas chambers. Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."

Migrations

Further information: Expulsions of Jews
Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600

Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland, the Land of Israel, and many of the areas in which they have settled. This experience as refugees has shaped Jewish identity and religious practice in many ways, and is thus a major element of Jewish history. The patriarch Abraham is described as a migrant to the land of Canaan from Ur of the Chaldees after an attempt on his life by King Nimrod. His descendants, the Children of Israel, in the Biblical story (whose historicity is uncertain) undertook the Exodus (meaning "departure" or "exit" in Greek) from ancient Egypt, as recorded in the Book of Exodus.

Etching of the expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt in 1614. The text says: "1380 persons old and young were counted at the exit of the gate".
Jews fleeing pogroms, 1882

Centuries later, Assyrian policy was to deport and displace conquered peoples, and it is estimated some 4,500,000 among captive populations suffered this dislocation over three centuries of Assyrian rule. With regard to Israel, Tiglath-Pileser III claims he deported 80% of the population of Lower Galilee, some 13,520 people. Some 27,000 Israelites, 20 to 25% of the population of the Kingdom of Israel, were described as being deported by Sargon II, and were replaced by other deported populations and sent into permanent exile by Assyria, initially to the Upper Mesopotamian provinces of the Assyrian Empire. Between 10,000 and 80,000 people from the Kingdom of Judah were similarly exiled by Babylonia, but these people were then returned to Judea by Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.

Many Jews were exiled again by the Roman Empire. The 2,000 year dispersion of the Jewish diaspora beginning under the Roman Empire, as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land, settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia to the Iberian Peninsula to Poland to the United States and, as a result of Zionism, back to Israel.

There were also many expulsions of Jews during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the (Statute of Jewry); in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in East-Central Europe, especially Poland. Following the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 Sephardic Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and Catholic church, followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, and North Africa, others migrating to Southern Europe and the Middle East.

During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe). This contributed to the arrival of millions of Jews in the New World. Over two million Eastern European Jews arrived in the United States from 1880 to 1925.

In summary, the pogroms in Eastern Europe, the rise of modern antisemitism, the Holocaust, as well as the rise of Arab nationalism, all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.

In the latest phase of migrations, the Islamic Revolution of Iran caused many Iranian Jews to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly Los Angeles, California, and Long Island, New York) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe. Similarly, when the Soviet Union collapsed, many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been refuseniks) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s.

Growth

Praying at the Western Wall

Israel is the only country with a Jewish population that is consistently growing through natural population growth, although the Jewish populations of other countries, in Europe and North America, have recently increased through immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but Orthodox and Haredi Jewish communities, whose members often shun birth control for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth.

Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytism to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples.

There is also a trend of Orthodox movements reaching out to secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years, there has been a trend (known as the Baal teshuva movement) for secular Jews to become more religiously observant, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown. Additionally, there is also a growing rate of conversion to Jews by Choice of gentiles who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.

Contributions

Jewish individuals have played a significant role in the development and growth of Western culture, advancing many fields of thought, science and technology, both historically and in modern times, including through discrete trends in Jewish philosophy, Jewish ethics and Jewish literature, as well as specific trends in Jewish culture, including in Jewish art, Jewish music, Jewish humor, Jewish theatre, Jewish cuisine and Jewish medicine. Jews have established various Jewish political movements, religious movements, and, through the authorship of the Hebrew Bible and parts of the New Testament, provided the foundation for Christianity and Islam. More than 20 percent of the awarded Nobel Prize have gone to individuals of Jewish descent.

Notes

  1. The global core Jewish population was estimated at approximately 15,263,500 in 2022. When including individuals who identify as partly Jewish and anyone with one or two Jewish parents increases the estimate to 20,028,800. Adding individuals with a Jewish background but without Jewish parents, and non-Jewish household members living with Jews, yields an enlarged estimate of 22,720,400.
  2. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to issues with census methodology, disputes among proponents of halakhic, secular, political, and ancestral identification factors regarding who is a Jew may affect the figure considerably depending on the source.

Citations

  1. ^ American Jewish Year Book 2022. Vol. 122. 2023. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-33406-1. ISBN 978-3-031-33405-4.
  2. ^ Dashefsky, Arnold; Della-Pergola, Sergio; Sheskin, Ira, eds. (2021). World Jewish Population (PDF) (Report). Berman Jewish DataBank. Retrieved 4 September 2023.
  3. ^ https://www.timesofisrael.com/worlds-jewish-population-hits-15-8-million-on-eve-of-rosh-hashanah/
  4. ^ "Global Jewish population hits 15.7 million ahead of new year, 46% of them in Israel". The Times of Israel.
  5. ^ "Links". Beth Hatefutsoth. Archived from the original on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
  6. "New Poll Shows Atheism on Rise, With Jews Found to Be Least Religious". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 25 December 2023.
  7. Kiaris, Hippokratis (2012). Genes, Polymorphisms and the Making of Societies: How Genetic Behavioral Traits Influence Human Cultures. Universal Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-61233-093-8.
  8. ^ Shen, Peidong; Lavi, Tal; Kivisild, Toomas; Chou, Vivian; Sengun, Deniz; Gefel, Dov; Shpirer, Issac; Woolf, Eilon; Hillel, Jossi; Feldman, Marcus W.; Oefner, Peter J. (September 2004). "Reconstruction of patrilineages and matrilineages of Samaritans and other Israeli populations from Y-Chromosome and mitochondrial DNA sequence Variation". Human Mutation. 24 (3): 248–260. doi:10.1002/humu.20077. ISSN 1059-7794. PMID 15300852. S2CID 1571356.
  9. Ridolfo, Jim (2015). Digital Samaritans: Rhetorical Delivery and Engagement in the Digital Humanities. University of Michigan Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-472-07280-4.
  10. Wade, Nicholas (9 June 2010). "Studies Show Jews' Genetic Similarity". The New York Times.
  11. Nebel, Almut; Filon, Dvora; Weiss, Deborah A.; Weale, Michael; Faerman, Marina; Oppenheim, Ariella; Thomas, Mark G. (December 2000). "High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews". Human Genetics. 107 (6): 630–641. doi:10.1007/s004390000426. PMID 11153918. S2CID 8136092.
  12. "Jews Are the Genetic Brothers of Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese". Sciencedaily.com. 9 May 2000. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
  13. ^ Atzmon, Gil; Hao, Li; Pe'er, Itsik; Velez, Christopher; Pearlman, Alexander; Palamara, Pier Francesco; Morrow, Bernice; Friedman, Eitan; Oddoux, Carole; Burns, Edward; Ostrer, Harry (June 2010). "Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 86 (6): 850–859. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015. PMC 3032072. PMID 20560205.
  14. ^
  15. *M. Nicholson (2002). International Relations: A Concise Introduction. NYU Press. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-0-8147-5822-9. The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel
  16. *Facts On File, Incorporated (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East. Infobase Publishing. pp. 337–. ISBN 978-1-4381-2676-0. The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history
  17. "Jew | History, Beliefs, & Facts". Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022. any person whose religion is Judaism. In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Bible (Old Testament).
  18. Jew. Cambridge Dictionary. Archived from the original on 6 July 2021. a member of a people whose traditional religion is Judaism
    Jew. Oxford Dictionary. Archived from the original on 13 February 2023. a member of the people and cultural community whose traditional religion is Judaism and who come from the ancient Hebrew people of Israel; a person who believes in and practises Judaism
    Jew. Collins. Archived from the original on 22 July 2023. a person whose religion is Judaism", "a member of the Semitic people who claim descent from the ancient Hebrew people of Israel, are spread throughout the world, and are linked by cultural or religious ties
  19. Eli Lederhendler (2001). Studies in Contemporary Jewry: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel. Oxford University Press. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-19-534896-5. Historically, the religious and ethnic dimensions of Jewish identity have been closely interwoven. In fact, so closely bound are they, that the traditional Jewish lexicon hardly distinguishes between the two concepts. Jewish religious practice, by definition, was observed exclusively by the Jewish people, and notions of Jewish peoplehood, nation, and community were suffused with faith in the Jewish God, the practice of Jewish (religious) law and the study of ancient religious texts
  20. Tet-Lim N. Yee (2005). Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-1-139-44411-8. This identification in the Jewish attitude between the ethnic group and religious identity is so close that the reception into this religion of members not belonging to its ethnic group has become impossible.
  21. M. Nicholson (2002). International Relations: A Concise Introduction. NYU Press. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-0-8147-5822-9. The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel
  22. Alan Dowty (1998). The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface. University of California Press. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-520-92706-3. Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos
  23. ^ Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea (1997). Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-1-4128-2689-1. A person born Jewish who refutes Judaism may continue to assert a Jewish identity, and if he or she does not convert to another religion, even religious Jews will recognize the person as a Jew
  24. "Belonging without believing: British Jewish identity and God". Institute for Jewish Policy Research. 20 March 2024. Only a third of Jews living in the UK have faith in God, as described in the Bible, yet 'non-believers' make up more than half of paid-up synagogue memberships, according to data from the JPR National Jewish Identity Survey
  25. "Jews in U.S. are far less religious than Christians and Americans overall, at least by traditional measures". Pew Research Center. 13 May 2021.
  26. "BBC - Religions - Judaism: Converting to Judaism". BBC. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
  27. ^ John Day (2005), In Search of Pre-Exilic Israel, Bloomsbury Publishing, pp. 47.5 'In this sense, the emergence of ancient Israel is viewed not as the cause of the demise of Canaanite culture but as its upshot'.
  28. David P Mindell (2009). The Evolving World. Harvard University Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-674-04108-0.
  29. "Knowledge Resources: Judaism". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 27 August 2011. Retrieved 22 November 2011.
  30. Albertz, Rainer (2003). Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E. Society of Biblical Lit. pp. 45ff. ISBN 978-1-58983-055-4. Since the exilic era constitutes a gaping hole in the historical narrative of the Bible, historical reconstruction of this era faces almost insurmountable difficulties. Like the premonarchic period and the late Persian period, the exilic period, though set in the bright light of Ancient Near Eastern history, remains historically obscure. Since there are very few Israelite sources, the only recourse is to try to cast some light on this darkness from the history of the surrounding empires under whose dominion Israel came in this period.
  31. * Marvin Perry (2012). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789. Cengage Learning. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-111-83720-4.
    • Botticini, Maristella; Eckstein, Zvi (1 September 2007). "From Farmers to Merchants, Conversions and Diaspora: Human Capital and Jewish History". Journal of the European Economic Association. 5 (5): 885–926. doi:10.1162/JEEA.2007.5.5.885. "The death toll of the Great Revolt against the Roman empire amounted to about 600,000 Jews, whereas the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 caused the death of about 500,000 Jews. Massacres account for roughly 40 percent of the decrease of the Jewish population in Palestine. Moreover, some Jews migrated to Babylon after these revolts because of the worse economic conditions. After accounting for massacres and migrations, there is an additional 30 to 40 percent of the decrease in the Jewish population in Palestine (about 1–1.3 million Jews) to be explained" (p. 19).
    • Boyarin, Daniel, and Jonathan Boyarin. 2003. Diaspora: Generation and the Ground of Jewish Diaspora. p. 714 Archived 11 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine "...it is crucial to recognize that the Jewish conception of the Land of Israel is similar to the discourse of the Land of many (if not nearly all) "indigenous" peoples of the world. Somehow the Jews have managed to retain a sense of being rooted somewhere in the world through twenty centuries of exile from that someplace (organic metaphors are not out of place in this discourse, for they are used within the tradition itself). It is profoundly disturbing to hear Jewish attachment to the Land decried as regressive in the same discursive situations in which the attachment of native Americans or Australians to their particular rocks, trees, and deserts is celebrated as an organic connection to the Earth that "we" have lost" p. 714.
    • Cohen, Robin (1997), Global Diasporas: An Introduction. p. 24 London: UCL Press. "...although the word Babylon often connotes captivity and oppression, a rereading of the Babylonian period of exile can thus be shown to demonstrate the development of a new creative energy in a challenging, pluralistic context outside the natal homeland. When the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in AD 70, it was Babylon that remained as the nerve- and brain-centre for Jewish life and thought...the crushing of the revolt of the Judaeans against the Romans and the destruction of the Second Temple by the Roman general Titus in AD 70 precisely confirmed the catastrophic tradition. Once again, Jews had been unable to sustain a national homeland and were scattered to the far corners of the world" (p. 24).
    • Johnson, Paul A History of the Jews "The Bar Kochba Revolt," (HarperPerennial, 1987) pp. 158–61: Paul Johnson analyzes Cassius Dio's Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX para. 13–14 (Dio's passage cited separately) among other sources: "Even if Dio's figures are somewhat exaggerated, the casualties amongst the population and the destruction inflicted on the country would have been considerable. According to Jerome, many Jews were also sold into slavery, so many, indeed, that the price of Jewish slaves at the slave market in Hebron sank drastically to a level no greater than that for a horse. The economic structure of the country was largely destroyed. The entire spiritual and economic life of the Palestinian Jews moved to Galilee. Jerusalem was now turned into a Roman colony with the official name Colonia Aelia Capitolina (Aelia after Hadrian's family name: P. Aelius Hadrianus; Capitolina after Jupiter Capitolinus). The Jews were forbidden on pain of death to set foot in the new Roman city. Aelia thus became a completely pagan city, no doubt with the corresponding public buildings and temples... We can...be certain that a statue of Hadrian was erected in the centre of Aelia, and this was tantamount in itself to a desecration of Jewish Jerusalem." p. 159.
    • Cassius Dio's Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX para. 13–14: "13 At first the Romans took no account of them. Soon, however, all Judaea had been stirred up, and the Jews everywhere were showing signs of disturbance, were gathering together, and giving evidence of great hostility to the Romans, partly by secret and partly by overt acts; 2 many outside nations, too, were joining them through eagerness for gain, and the whole earth, one might almost say, was being stirred up over the matter. Then, indeed, Hadrian sent against them his best generals. First of these was Julius Severus, who was dispatched from Britain, where he was governor, against the Jews. 3 Severus did not venture to attack his opponents in the open at any one point, in view of their numbers and their desperation, but by intercepting small groups, thanks to the number of his soldiers and his under-officers, and by depriving them of food and shutting them up, he was able, rather slowly, to be sure, but with comparatively little danger, to crush, exhaust and exterminate them. Very few of them in fact survived. Fifty of their most important outposts and nine hundred and eighty-five of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. Five hundred and eighty thousand men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out. 2 Thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate, a result of which the people had had forewarning before the war. For the tomb of Solomon, which the Jews regard as an object of veneration, fell to pieces of itself and collapsed, and many wolves and hyenas rushed howling into their cities. 3 Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore Hadrian in writing to the senate did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors, 'If you and our children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health'" (para. 13–14).
    • Safran, William (2005). "The Jewish Diaspora in a Comparative and Theoretical Perspective". Israel Studies. 10 (1): 36–60. doi:10.2979/ISR.2005.10.1.36. JSTOR 30245753. S2CID 144379115. Project MUSE 180371. "...diaspora referred to a very specific case—that of the exile of the Jews from the Holy Land and their dispersal throughout several parts of the globe. Diaspora connoted deracination, legal disabilities, oppression, and an often painful adjustment to a hostland whose hospitality was unreliable and ephemeral. It also connoted the existence on foreign soil of an expatriate community that considered its presence to be transitory. Meanwhile, it developed a set of institutions, social patterns, and ethnonational and/or religious symbols that held it together. These included the language, religion, values, social norms, and narratives of the homeland. Gradually, this community adjusted to the hostland environment and became itself a center of cultural creation. All the while, however, it continued to cultivate the idea of return to the homeland." (p. 36).
    • Sheffer, Gabriel (2005). "Is the Jewish Diaspora Unique? Reflections on the Diaspora's Current Situation". Israel Studies. 10 (1): 1–35. doi:10.2979/ISR.2005.10.1.1. JSTOR 30245752. S2CID 143958201. Project MUSE 180374. "...the Jewish nation, which from its very earliest days believed and claimed that it was the "chosen people," and hence unique. This attitude has further been buttressed by the equally traditional view, which is held not only by the Jews themselves, about the exceptional historical age of this diaspora, its singular traumatic experiences its singular ability to survive pogroms, exiles, and Holocaust, as well as its "special relations" with its ancient homeland, culminating in 1948 with the nation-state that the Jewish nation has established there... First, like many other members of established diasporas, the vast majority of Jews no longer regard themselves as being in Galut in their host countries....Perceptually, as well as actually, Jews permanently reside in host countries of their own free will, as a result of inertia, or as a result of problematic conditions prevailing in other hostlands, or in Israel. It means that the basic perception of many Jews about their existential situation in their hostlands has changed. Consequently, there is both a much greater self- and collective-legitimatization to refrain from making serious plans concerning "return" or actually "making Aliyah" to Israel. This is one of the results of their wider, yet still rather problematic and sometimes painful acceptance by the societies and political systems in their host countries. It means that they, and to an extent their hosts, do not regard Jewish life within the framework of diasporic formations in these hostlands as something that they should be ashamed of, hide from others, or alter by returning to the old homeland" (p. 4).
    • Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Katz, Steven T. (1984). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Although Dio's figure of 985 as the number of villages destroyed during the war seems hyperbolic, all Judaean villages, without exception, excavated thus far were razed following the Bar Kochba Revolt. This evidence supports the impression of total regional destruction following the war. Historical sources note the vast number of captives sold into slavery in Palestine and shipped abroad. ... The Judaean Jewish community never recovered from the Bar Kochba war. In its wake, Jews no longer formed the majority in Palestine, and the Jewish center moved to the Galilee. Jews were also subjected to a series of religious edicts promulgated by Hadrian that were designed to uproot the nationalistic elements with the Judaean Jewish community, these proclamations remained in effect until Hadrian's death in 138. An additional, more lasting punitive measure taken by the Romans involved expunging Judaea from the provincial name, changing it from Provincia Judaea to Provincia Syria Palestina. Although such name changes occurred elsewhere, never before or after was a nation's name expunged as the result of rebellion.
    • Dalit Rom-Shiloni, Exclusive Inclusivity: Identity Conflicts Between the Exiles and the People who Remained (6th–5th Centuries BCE), A&C Black, 2013 p. xv n.3: 'it is argued that biblical texts of the Neo-Babylonian and the early Persian periods show a fierce adversarial relationship(s) between the Judean groups. We find no expressions of sympathy to the deported community for its dislocation, no empathic expressions towards the People Who Remained under Babylonian subjugation in Judah. The opposite is apparent: hostile, denigrating, and denunciating language characterizes the relationships between resident and exiled Judeans throughout the sixth and fifth centuries.' (p. xvii)
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