Misplaced Pages

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Dushan Jugum (talk | contribs) at 04:19, 19 July 2021 (→Aboriginal identity: better ref, still may need some work?). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Aboriginal Australians

The Australian Aboriginal Flag
1st row: Windradyne, David Gulpilil, Albert Namatjira], David Unaipon, Mandawuy Yunupingu 2nd row: Truganini, Yagan, Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu, Bennelong, Robert Tudawali
Total population
759,705 (2016) 3.1% of Australia's population
Regions with significant populations
Northern Territory	30.3%
Tasmania	5.5%
Queensland	4.6%
Western Australia	3.9%
New South Wales	3.4%
South Australia	2.5%
Australian Capital Territory	1.9%
Victoria	0.9%
Languages
Several hundred Australian Aboriginal languages, many no longer spoken, Australian English, Australian Aboriginal English, Kriol
Religion
Majority Christian (mainly Anglican and Catholic), minority no religious affiliation, small numbers of other religions, various local indigenous religions grounded in Australian Aboriginal mythology
Related ethnic groups
Torres Strait Islanders, Aboriginal Tasmanians, Papuans

Aboriginal Australians are the various Indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, such as Tasmania, Fraser Island, Hinchinbrook Island, the Tiwi Islands, and Groote Eylandt, but excluding the Torres Strait Islands. The term Indigenous Australians refers to Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders collectively. It is generally used when both groups are included in the topic being addressed. Torres Strait Islanders are ethnically and culturally distinct, despite extensive cultural exchange with some of the Aboriginal groups. The Torres Strait Islands are mostly part of Queensland but have a separate governmental status.

Aboriginal Australians comprise many distinct peoples who have developed across Australia for over 50,000 years. These peoples have a broadly shared, though complex, genetic history, but it is only in the last two hundred years that they have been defined and started to self-identify as a single group. The definition of the term "Aboriginal" has changed over time and place, with family lineage, self-identification and community acceptance all being of varying importance.

In the past, Aboriginal Australians lived over large sections of the continental shelf and were isolated on many of the smaller offshore islands and Tasmania when the land was inundated at the start of the Holocene inter-glacial period, about 11,700 years ago. Studies regarding the genetic make-up of Aboriginal groups are still ongoing, but evidence has suggested that they have genetic inheritance from ancient Asian but not more modern peoples, share some similarities with Papuans, but have been isolated from Southeast Asia for a very long time. Before extensive European settlement, there were over 250 Aboriginal languages.

In the 2016 Australian Census, Indigenous Australians comprised 3.3% of Australia's population, with 91% of these identifying as Aboriginal only, 5% Torres Strait Islander, and 4% both. They also live throughout the world as part of the Australian diaspora.

Most Aboriginal people speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English (which also has a tangible influence of Aboriginal languages in the phonology and grammatical structure).

Aboriginal people, along with Torres Strait Islander people, have a number of health and economic deprivations in comparison with the wider Australian community.

Origins

The ancestors of present-day Aboriginal Australian people migrated from South East Asia by sea during the Pleistocene epoch and lived over large sections of the Australian continental shelf when the sea levels were lower and Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea were part of the same landmass, known as Sahul. As sea levels rose, the people on the Australian mainland and nearby islands became increasingly isolated, and some were isolated on Tasmania and some of the smaller offshore islands when the land was inundated at the start of the Holocene, the inter-glacial period which started about 11,700 years ago and persists today. Prehistorians believe that it would have been difficult for Aboriginal people to have originated purely from mainland Asia, and not enough numbers would have made it to Australia and surrounding islands to fulfil the beginning of the population that we have seen in the last century. This is why it is commonly believed that most Aboriginal Australians have originated from South East Asia, and if this is the case, Australian Aboriginals would have been among the first in the world to have completed successful sea voyages.

A 2017 paper in Nature evaluated artefacts in Kakadu and concluded "Human occupation began around 65,000 years ago".

A 2021 study by researchers at the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage has mapped the likely migration routes of the peoples as they moved across the Australian continent to its southern reaches of what is now Tasmania, then part of the mainland. The modelling is based on data from archaeologists, anthropologists, ecologists, geneticists, climatologists, geomorphologists, and hydrologists, and it is intended to compare the modelling with the oral histories of Aboriginal peoples, including Dreaming stories, as well as Australian rock art and linguistic features of the many Aboriginal languages. The routes, dubbed "superhighways" by the authors, are similar to current highways and stock routes in Australia. Lynette Russell of Monash University sees the new model as a starting point for collaboration with Aboriginal people to help uncover their history. The new models suggest that the first people may have first landed in the Kimberley region in what is now Western Australia about 60,000 years ago, and had settled across the continent within 6,000 years.

Genetics

Studies regarding the genetic makeup of Aboriginal Australian people are still ongoing, but evidence has suggested that they have genetic inheritance from ancient Eurasian but not more modern peoples, share some similarities with Papuans, but have been isolated from Southeast Asia for a very long time.

Aboriginal people are genetically most similar to the indigenous populations of Papua New Guinea, and more distantly related to groups from East Indonesia. They are quite distinct from the indigenous populations of Borneo and Malaysia, sharing relatively little genomic information as compared to the groups from Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. This indicates that Australia was isolated for a long time from the rest of Southeast Asia, and remained untouched by migrations and population expansions into that area.

In a 2001 study, blood samples were collected from some Warlpiri people in the Northern Territory, to study their genetic makeup (which is not representative of all Aboriginal peoples in Australia). The study concluded that the Warlpiri are descended from ancient Asians whose DNA is still somewhat present in Southeastern Asian groups, although greatly diminished. The Warlpiri DNA lacks certain information found in modern Asian genomes, and carries information not found in other genomes, reinforcing the idea of ancient Aboriginal isolation.

In a 2011 genetic study by Morten Rasmussen et al., researchers took a DNA sample from an early-20th-century lock of an Aboriginal person's hair. They found that the ancestors of the Aboriginal Australian population split off from other Eurasians between 62,000 and 75,000 BP, whereas the European and Asian populations split only 25,000 to 38,000 years BP, indicating an extended period of Aboriginal genetic isolation. These Aboriginal ancestors probably migrated into South Asia and then into Australia, where they stayed, with the result that, outside of Africa, the Aboriginal peoples have occupied the same territory continuously longer than any other human populations. These findings suggest that modern Aboriginal Australians are the direct descendants of migrants who left Africa up to 75,000 years ago. This finding is compatible with earlier archaeological finds of human remains near Lake Mungo that date to approximately 40,000 years ago. The idea of the "oldest continuous culture" is based on the geographical isolation of the Aboriginal peoples, with little or no interaction with outside cultures before some contact with Makassan fishermen and Dutch explorers up to 500 years BP.

The Rasmussen study also found evidence that Aboriginal peoples carry some of the genes associated with the Denisovans (a species of human related to but distinct from Neanderthals) of Asia; the study suggests that there is an increase in allele sharing between the Denisovan and Aboriginal Australian genomes, compared to other Eurasians and to Africans. Examining DNA from a finger bone excavated in Siberia, researchers concluded that the Denisovans migrated from Siberia to tropical parts of Asia and that they interbred with modern humans in South-East Asia 44,000 years BP, before Australia separated from New Guinea approximately 11,700 years BP. They contributed DNA to Aboriginal Australians along with present-day New Guineans and an indigenous tribe in the Philippines known as Mamanwa. This study makes Aboriginal Australians one of the oldest living populations in the world and possibly the oldest outside of Africa, confirming they may also have the oldest continuous culture on the planet.

A 2016 study at the University of Cambridge by Christopher Klein et al. reported that Papuan and Aboriginal peoples developed distinct markers around 58,000 years BP that distinguished them from the original out-of-Africa migration around 72,000 years BP, pointing to a single migration henceforth untouched by other groups. The study suggests that it was about 50,000 years ago that these peoples reached Sahul (the supercontinent consisting of present-day Australia and its islands and New Guinea). The sea levels rose and isolated Australia (and Tasmania) about 10,000 years ago, but Aboriginal Australians and Papuans diverged from each other genetically earlier, about 37,000 years BP, possibly because the remaining land bridge was impassable, and it was this isolation which makes it the world's oldest culture. The study also found evidence of an unknown hominin group, distantly related to Denisovans, with whom the Aboriginal and Papuan ancestors must have interbred, leaving a trace of about 4% in most Aboriginal Australians' genome. There is, however, huge genetic diversity among Aboriginal Australians based on geographical distribution.

Changes around 4,000 years ago

The dingo reached Australia about 4,000 years ago, and around the same time there were changes in language (with the Pama-Nyungan language family spreading over most of the mainland), and in stone tool technology, with the use of smaller tools. Human contact has thus been inferred, and genetic data of two kinds have been proposed to support a gene flow from India to Australia: firstly, signs of South Asian components in Aboriginal Australian genomes, reported on the basis of genome-wide SNP data; and secondly, the existence of a Y chromosome (male) lineage, designated haplogroup C∗, with the most recent common ancestor around 5,000 years ago. The first type of evidence comes from a 2013 study by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology using large-scale genotyping data from a pool of Aboriginal Australians, New Guineans, island Southeast Asians, and Indians. It found that the New Guinea and Mamanwa (Philippines area) groups diverged from the Aboriginal about 36,000 years ago (and supporting evidence that these populations are descended from migrants taking an early “southern route” out of Africa, before other groups in the area), and also that the Indian and Australian populations mixed well before European contact, with this gene flow occurring during the Holocene (c. 4,200 years ago). The researchers had two theories for this: either some Indians had contact with people in Indonesia who eventually transferred those Indian genes to Aboriginal Australians, or that a group of Indians migrated all the way from India to Australia and intermingled with the locals directly.

However, a 2016 study in Current Biology by Anders Bergström et al. excluded the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia. The study authors sequenced 13 Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes using recent advances in gene sequencing technology, investigating their divergence times from Y chromosomes in other continents, including comparing the haplogroup C chromosomes. They found a divergence time of about 54,100 years between the Sahul C chromosome and its closest relative C5, as well as about 54,300 years between haplogroups K*/M and their closest haplogroups R and Q. The deep divergence time of 50,000+ years with the South Asian chromosome and "the fact that the Aboriginal Australian Cs share a more recent common ancestor with Papuan Cs" excludes any recent genetic contact.

The authors concluded that, although this does not disprove the presence of any Holocene gene flow or non-genetic influences from South Asia at that time, and the appearance of the dingo does provide strong evidence for external contacts, the evidence overall is consistent with a complete lack of gene flow, and points to indigenous origins for the technological and linguistic changes. They attributed the disparity between their results and previous findings to improvements in technology; none of the other studies had utilized complete Y chromosome sequencing, which has the highest precision. Redd et al. used ten Y STRs, a method that has been shown to massively underestimate divergence times. Gene flow across the island-dotted 150-kilometre-wide (93 mi) Torres Strait, is both geographically plausible and demonstrated by the data, although at this point it could not be determined from this study when within the last 10,000 years it may have occurred – newer analytical techniques have the potential to address such questions.

Bergstrom's 2018 doctoral thesis looking at the population of Sahul suggests that other than relatively recent admixture, the populations of the region appear to have been genetically independent from the rest of the world since their divergence about 50,000 years ago. He writes "There is no evidence for South Asian gene flow to Australia .... Despite Sahul being a single connected landmass until , different groups across Australia are nearly equally related to Papuans, and vice versa, and the two appear to have separated genetically already ".

Environmental adaptations

Aboriginal Australians possess inherited abilities to stand a wide range of environmental temperatures in various ways. A study in 1958 comparing cold adaptation in the desert-dwelling Pitjantjatjara people compared with a group of European people showed that the cooling adaptation of the Aboriginal group differed from that of the white people, and that they were able to sleep more soundly through a cold desert night. A 2014 Cambridge University study found that a beneficial mutation in two genes which regulate thyroxine, a hormone involved in regulating body metabolism, helps to regulate body temperature in response to fever. The effect of this is that the desert people are able to have a higher body temperature without accelerating the activity of the whole of the body, which can be especially detrimental in childhood diseases. This helps protect people to survive the side-effects of infection.

Location and demographics

Aboriginal people have lived for tens of thousands of years on the continent of Australia, through its various changes in landmass. The area within Australia's borders today includes the islands of Tasmania, Fraser Island, Hinchinbrook Island, the Tiwi Islands and Groote Eylandt. Indigenous people of the Torres Strait Islands, however, are not Aboriginal.

In the 2016 Australian Census, Indigenous Australians comprised 3.3% of Australia's population, with 91% of these identifying as Aboriginal only, 5% Torres Strait Islander, and 4% both.

Aboriginal people also live throughout the world as part of the Australian diaspora.

Languages

Most Aboriginal people speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English (which also has a tangible influence of Aboriginal languages in the phonology and grammatical structure). Some Aboriginal people, especially those living in remote areas, are multi-lingual. Many of the original 250–400 Aboriginal languages (more than 250 languages and about 800 dialectal varieties on the continent) are endangered or extinct, although some efforts are being made at language revival for some. As of 2016, only 13 traditional Indigenous languages were still being acquired by children, and about another 100 spoken by older generations only.

Aboriginal Australian peoples

Dispersing across the Australian continent over time, the ancient people expanded and differentiated into distinct groups, each with its own language and culture. More than 400 distinct Australian Aboriginal peoples have been identified, distinguished by names designating their ancestral languages, dialects, or distinctive speech patterns. According to noted anthropologist, archaeologist and sociologist Harry Lourandos, historically, these groups lived in three main cultural areas, the Northern, Southern, and Central cultural areas. The Northern and Southern areas, having richer natural marine and woodland resources, were more densely populated than the Central area.

Geographically-based names

There are various other names from Australian Aboriginal languages commonly used to identify groups based on geography, known as demonyms, including:

• Anangu in northern South Australia, and neighbouring parts of Western Australia and Northern Territory
• Goorie (variant pronunciation and spelling of Koori) in South East Queensland and some parts of northern New South Wales
• Koori (or Koorie) in New South Wales and Victoria (Aboriginal Victorians)
• Murri in southern Queensland
• Nunga in southern South Australia
• Noongar in southern Western Australia
• Palawah (or Pallawah) in Tasmania
• Tiwi on Tiwi Islands off Arnhem Land (NT)

A few examples of sub-groups

Other group names are based on the language group or specific dialect spoken. These also coincide with geographical regions of varying sizes. A few examples are:

• Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt (off Arnhem Land), NT
• Arrernte in central Australia
• Aranda people of central Australia
• Bininj in Western Arnhem Land (NT)
• Gunggari in south-west Queensland
• Muruwari people in New South Wales
• Luritja (Kukatja), an Anangu sub-group based on language
• Ngunnawal in the Australian Capital Territory and surrounding areas of New South Wales
• Pitjantjatjara, an Anangu sub-group based on language
• Wangai in the Western Australian Goldfields
• Warlpiri (Yapa) in western central Northern Territory
• Yamatji in central Western Australia
• Yolngu in eastern Arnhem Land (NT)

Difficulties defining groups

However these lists are neither exhaustive nor definitive, and there are overlaps. Different approaches have been taken by non-Aboriginal scholars in trying to understand and define Aboriginal culture and societies, some focusing on the micro-level (tribe, clan, etc.), and others on shared languages and cultural practices spread over large regions defined by ecological factors. Anthropologists have encountered many difficulties in trying to define what constitutes an Aboriginal people/community/group/tribe, let alone naming them. Knowledge of pre-colonial Aboriginal cultures and societal groupings is still largely dependent on the observers' interpretations, which were filtered through colonial ways of viewing societies.

Some Aboriginal peoples identify as one of several saltwater, freshwater, rainforest or desert peoples.

Aboriginal identity

The term Aboriginal Australians includes many distinct peoples who have developed across Australia for over 50,000 years. These peoples have a broadly shared, though complex, genetic history, but it is only in the last two hundred years that they have been defined and started to self-identify as a single group, socio-politically. While some preferred the term Aborigine to Aboriginal in the past, as the latter was seen to have more directly discriminatory legal origins, use of the term Aborigine has declined in recent decades, as many consider the term an offensive and racist hangover from Australia's colonial era.

The definition of the term Aboriginal has changed over time and place, with the importance of family lineage, self-identification and community acceptance all being of varying importance.

The term Indigenous Australians refers to Aboriginal Australians as well as Torres Strait Islander peoples, and the term is conventionally only used when both groups are included in the topic being addressed, or by self-identification by a person as Indigenous. (Torres Strait Islanders are ethnically and culturally distinct, despite extensive cultural exchange with some of the Aboriginal groups, and the Torres Strait Islands are mostly part of Queensland but have a separate governmental status.) Some Aboriginal people object to being labelled Indigenous, as an artificial and denialist term.

Culture and beliefs

The cultures, beliefs and customs of Aboriginal Australians vary among the different groups and are often unique. An example is the Aranda people of central Australia who believed that humanity as we know it originated as a result of great superhuman ancestors who brought the sun, wind and rain as a result of breaking through the surface of the Earth when waking from their slumber and brought life into humans. Aboriginal societies are known for having a strong attachment to place, with their home being at the epicenter of family and religious life.

Health and disadvantage

Aboriginal Australians, along with Torres Strait Islander people, have a number of health and economic deprivations in comparison with the wider Australian community.

Due to the aforementioned disadvantage, Aboriginal Australian communities experience a higher rate of suicide, as compared to non-indigenous communities. These issues stem from a variety of different causes unique to indigenous communities, such as historical trauma, socioeconomic disadvantage, and decreased access to education and health care. Also, this problem largely affects indigenous youth, as many indigenous youth may feel disconnected from their culture.

In order to combat the increased suicide rate, many researchers have suggested that the inclusion of more cultural aspects into suicide prevention programs would help to combat mental health issues within the community. Past studies have found that many indigenous leaders and community members, do in fact, want more culturally-aware health care programs. Similarly, culturally-relative programs targeting indigenous youth have actively challenged suicide ideation among younger indigenous populations, with many social and emotional wellbeing programs using cultural information to provide coping mechanisms and improving mental health.

According to the Journal of Australian Indigenous Issues, 75% of Australians regardless of gender, age, ethnicity, occupation, religion, education level, geography or political leanings showed negative associations with Aborginal Australians in an implicit bias test.

Viability of remote communities

The outstation movement of the 1970s and 1980s, when Aboriginal people moved to tiny remote settlements on traditional land, brought health benefits, but funding them proved expensive, training and employment opportunies were not provided in many cases, and support from governments dwindled in the 2000s, particularly in the era of the Howard government.

Indigenous communities in remote Australia are often small, isolated towns with basic facilities, on traditionally-owned land. These communities have between 20 and 300 inhabitants and are often closed to outsiders for cultural reasons. The long-term viability and resilience of Aboriginal communities in desert areas has been discussed by scholars and policy-makers. A 2007 report by the CSIRO stressed the importance of taking a demand-driven approach to services in desert settlements, and concluded that "if top-down solutions continue to be imposed without appreciating the fundamental drivers of settlement in desert regions, then those solutions will continue to be partial, and ineffective in the long term".

See also

• Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts (ACPA)
• Aboriginal cultures of Western Australia
• Aboriginal land rights in Australia
• Aboriginal South Australians
• Australian Aboriginal culture
• Australian Aboriginal kinship
• Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology
• Climate change in Australia
• Indigenous Australian art
• Indigenous Australian music
  • First Nations Media Australia
• List of Aboriginal missions in New South Wales
• List of Indigenous Australian firsts
• List of massacres of Indigenous Australians
• National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
• Native title in Australia
• Stolen Generations
• Supply Nation

References

1. "Estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians". Australian Bureau of Statistics. June 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
2. ^ "4713.0 – Population Characteristics, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 4 May 2010.
3. "Languages of Aboriginal And Torres Strait Islander Peoples – a Uniquely Australian Heritage". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 23 November 2012. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
4. "Community, identity, wellbeing: The report of the Second National Indigenous Languages Survey". AIATSIS. 2014. Retrieved 18 May 2015.
5. Graves, Randin. "Yolngu are People 2: They're not Clip Art". Yidaki History. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
6. Rebe Taylor (2002). Unearthed: The Aboriginal Tasmanians of Kangaroo Island. Kent Town: Wakefield Press. ISBN 978-1-86254-552-6.
7. ^ Read, Peter; Broome, Richard (1982). "Aboriginal Australians". Labour History (43): 125–126. doi:10.2307/27508560. ISSN 0023-6942. JSTOR 27508560.
8. ^ Clarkson, Chris; Jacobs, Zenobia; et al. (2017). "Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago". Nature. 547 (7663): 306–310. Bibcode:2017Natur.547..306C. doi:10.1038/nature22968. hdl:2440/107043. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 28726833. S2CID 205257212.
9. Morse, Dana (30 April 2021). "Researchers demystify the secrets of ancient Aboriginal migration across Australia". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
10. Crabtree, S.A.; White, D.A.; et al. (29 April 2021). "Landscape rules predict optimal superhighways for the first peopling of Sahul". Nature Human Behaviour: 1–11. doi:10.1038/s41562-021-01106-8. PMID 33927367. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
11. ^ Huoponen, Kirsi; Schurr, Theodore G.; et al. (1 September 2001). "Mitochondrial DNA variation in an Aboriginal Australian population: evidence for genetic isolation and regional differentiation". Human Immunology. 62 (9): 954–969. doi:10.1016/S0198-8859(01)00294-4. PMID 11543898.
12. Rasmussen, Morten; Guo, Xiaosen; et al. (7 October 2011). "An Aboriginal Australia Genome Reveals Separate Human Dispersals into Asia". Science. 334 (6052). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 94–98. Bibcode:2011Sci...334...94R. doi:10.1126/science.1211177. PMC 3991479. PMID 21940856.
13. "The first Aboriginal genome sequence confirms Australia's native people left Africa 75,000 years ago". Australian Geographic. 23 September 2011.
14. Callaway, Ewen (2011). "First Aboriginal genome sequenced". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2011.551. ISSN 1476-4687. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
15. Pearson, Luke (21 December 2016). "What is a 'continuous culture'... and are Aboriginal cultures the oldest?". NITV. Special Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 13 March 2020.
16. "DNA confirms Aboriginal culture is one of the Earth's oldest". Australian Geographic. 23 September 2011.
17. Klein, Christopher (23 September 2016). "DNA Study Finds Aboriginal Australians World's Oldest Civilization". History. Retrieved 13 March 2020. Updated Aug 22, 2018
18. ^ Bergström, Anders; Nagle, Nano; Chen, Yuan; McCarthy, Shane; Pollard, Martin O.; Ayub, Qasim; Wilcox, Stephen; Wilcox, Leah; van Oorschot, Roland A. H.; McAllister, Peter; Williams, Lesley; Xue, Yali; Mitchell, R. John; Tyler-Smith, Chris (21 March 2016). "Deep Roots for Aboriginal Australian Y Chromosomes". Current Biology. 26 (6): 809–813. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.028. PMC 4819516. PMID 26923783.
19. Pugach, Irina; Delfin, Frederick; Gunnarsdóttir, Ellen; Kayser, Manfred; Stoneking, Mark (29 January 2013). "Genome-wide data substantiate Holocene gene flow from India to Australia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (5): 1803–1808. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.1803P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1211927110. PMC 3562786. PMID 23319617.
20. Sanyal, Sanjeev (2016). The ocean of churn : how the Indian Ocean shaped human history. Gurgaon, Haryana, India. p. 59. ISBN 9789386057617. OCLC 990782127.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
21. ^ MacDonald, Anna (15 January 2013). "Research shows ancient Indian migration to Australia". ABC News.
22. Bergström, Anders (20 July 2018). Genomic insights into the human population history of Australia and New Guinea [doctoral thesis – abstract] (Thesis). University of Cambridge. doi:10.17863/CAM.20837. Retrieved 24 June 2020 – via Apollo. Whole thesis
23. Scholander, P. F.; Hammel, H. T.; et al. (1 September 1958). "Cold Adaptation in Australian Aborigines". Journal of Applied Physiology. 13 (2): 211–218. doi:10.1152/jappl.1958.13.2.211. PMID 13575330.
24. Caitlyn Gribbin (29 January 2014). "Genetic mutation helps Aboriginal people survive tough climate, research finds" (text and audio). ABC News.
25. Qi, Xiaoqiang; Chan, Wee Lee; Read, Randy J.; Zhou, Aiwu; Carrell, Robin W. (22 March 2014). "Temperature-responsive release of thyroxine and its environmental adaptation in Australians". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 281 (1779): 20132747. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.2747. PMC 3924073. PMID 24478298.
26. "Preferences in terminology when referring to Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples" (Document). ACT Council of Social Service Inc. December 2016. {{cite document}}: Unknown parameter |access-date= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |series= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)
27. "Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976". Federal Register of Legislation. No. 191, 1976: Compilation No. 41. Australian Government. 4 April 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019. s 3: Aboriginal means a person who is a member of the Aboriginal race of Australia....12AAA. Additional grant to Tiwi Land Trust...
28. "Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Act 2005". Federal Register of Legislation. No. 150, 1989: Compilation No. 54. Australian Government. 4 April 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019. s 4: "Aboriginal person means a person of the Aboriginal race of Australia."
29. Venbrux, Eric (1995). A death in the Tiwi islands: conflict, ritual, and social life in an Australian aboriginal community. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47351-4.
30. Rademaker, Laura (7 February 2018). "Tiwi Christianity: Aboriginal histories, Catholic mission and a surprising conversion". ABC Religion and Ethics. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
31. "Estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians". Australian Bureau of Statistics. June 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
32. ^ "2076.0: Characteristics of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, 2016: Main language spoken at home and English proficiency". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 14 March 2019. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
33. "What is Aboriginal English like, and how would you recognise it?". ABED. 12 March 2019. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
34. ^ "Indigenous Australian Languages". Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. 3 June 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
35. Simpson, Jane (20 January 2019). "The state of Australia's Indigenous languages – and how we can help people speak them more often". The Conversation. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
36. ^ Lourandos, Harry. New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom (1997) ISBN 0-521-35946-5
37. Horton, David (1994) The Encyclopedia of Aboriginal Australia: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander History, Society, and Culture, Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra. ISBN 0-85575-234-3.
38. Garde, Murray. "bininj". Bininj Kunwok Dictionary. Bininj Kunwok Regional Language Centre. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
39. "General Reference". Life and Times of the Gunggari People, QLD (Pathfinder). Retrieved 29 November 2016.
40. Monaghan, Paul (2017). "Chapter 1: Structures of Aboriginal life at the time of colonisation". In Brock, Peggy; Gara, Tom (eds.). Colonialism and its Aftermath: A history of Aboriginal South Australia. Wakefield Press. pp. 10, 12. ISBN 9781743054994.
41. Walsh, Michael; Yallop, Colin (1993). Language and Culture in Aboriginal Australia. Aboriginal Studies Press. pp. 191–193. ISBN 9780855752415.
42. Edwards, W. H. (2004). An Introduction to Aboriginal Societies (2nd ed.). Social Science Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-876633-89-9.
43. ^ Fesl, Eve D. "'Aborigine' and 'Aboriginal'". (1986) 1(20) Aboriginal Law Bulletin 10 Accessed 19 August 2011
44. ^ "Don't call me indigenous: Lowitja". The Age. Melbourne. Australian Associated Press. 1 May 2008. Retrieved 12 April 2010.
45. Solonec, Tammy (9 August 2015). "Why saying 'Aborigine' isn't OK: 8 facts about Indigenous people in Australia". Amnesty.org. Amnesty International. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
46. "Why do media organisations like News Corp, Reuters and The New York Times still use words like 'Aborigines'?". NITV. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
47. "Aboriginality and Identity: Perspectives, Practices and Policies" (PDF). New South Wales AECG Inc. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2016.
48. Blandy, Sarah; Sibley, David (2010). "Law, boundaries and the production of space". Social & Legal Studies. 19 (3): 275–284. doi:10.1177/0964663910372178. S2CID 145479418. "Aboriginal Australians are a legally defined group" (p 280).
49. Malbon, Justin (2003). "The Extinguishment of Native Title—The Australian Aborigines as Slaves and Citizens". Griffith Law Review. 12 (2): 310–335. doi:10.1080/10383441.2003.10854523. S2CID 147150152. Aboriginal Australians have been "assigned a separate legally defined status" (p 322).
50. "About the Torres Strait". Torres Strait Shire Council. Retrieved 21 October 2019. {{cite web}}: External link in |ref= (help)
51. "Australia Now – Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples". 8 October 2006. Archived from the original on 8 October 2006. Retrieved 8 February 2019.
52. Tonkinson, Robert (2011), "Landscape, Transformations, and Immutability in an Aboriginal Australian Culture", Cultural Memories, Knowledge and Space, vol. 4, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 329–345, doi:10.1007/978-90-481-8945-8_18, ISBN 978-90-481-8944-1, retrieved 21 May 2021
53. "4704.0 - The Health and Welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, Oct 2010". Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government. 17 February 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
54. "Indigenous Socioeconomics Indicators, Benefits and Expenditure". Parliament of Australia. 7 August 2001. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
55. Elliott-Farrelly, Terri (January 2004). "Australian Aboriginal suicide: The need for an Aboriginal suicidology?". Australian e-Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health. 3 (3): 138–145. doi:10.5172/jamh.3.3.138. ISSN 1446-7984. S2CID 71578621.
56. Marrone, Sonia (July 2007). "Understanding barriers to health care: a review of disparities in health care services among indigenous populations". International Journal of Circumpolar Health. 66 (3): 188–198. doi:10.3402/ijch.v66i3.18254. ISSN 2242-3982. PMID 17655060. S2CID 1720215.
57. Isaacs, Anton; Sutton, Keith (16 June 2016). "An Aboriginal youth suicide prevention project in rural Victoria". Advances in Mental Health. 14 (2): 118–125. doi:10.1080/18387357.2016.1198232. ISSN 1838-7357. S2CID 77905930.
58. Ridani, Rebecca; Shand, Fiona L.; Christensen, Helen; McKay, Kathryn; Tighe, Joe; Burns, Jane; Hunter, Ernest (16 September 2014). "Suicide Prevention in Australian Aboriginal Communities: A Review of Past and Present Programs". Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior. 45 (1): 111–140. doi:10.1111/sltb.12121. ISSN 0363-0234. PMID 25227155.
59. Skerrett, Delaney Michael; Gibson, Mandy; Darwin, Leilani; Lewis, Suzie; Rallah, Rahm; De Leo, Diego (30 March 2017). "Closing the Gap in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Youth Suicide: A Social-Emotional Wellbeing Service Innovation Project". Australian Psychologist. 53 (1): 13–22. doi:10.1111/ap.12277. ISSN 0005-0067. S2CID 151609217.
60. Murrup‐Stewart, Cammi; Searle, Amy K.; Jobson, Laura; Adams, Karen (16 November 2018). "Aboriginal perceptions of social and emotional wellbeing programs: A systematic review of literature assessing social and emotional wellbeing programs for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians perspectives". Australian Psychologist. 54 (3): 171–186. doi:10.1111/ap.12367. ISSN 0005-0067. S2CID 150362243.
61. "Three in four people hold negative view of Indigenous people". ANU. 5 June 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2020.
62. Morice, Rodney D. (1976). "Woman Dancing Dreaming: Psychosocial Benefits of the Aboriginal Outstation Movement". Medical Journal of Australia. 2 (25–26). AMPCo: 939–942. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1976.tb115531.x. ISSN 0025-729X. PMID 1035404. S2CID 28327004.
63. Ganesharajah, Cynthia (April 2009). Indigenous Health and Wellbeing: The Importance of Country (PDF). Native Title Research Report Report No. 1/2009. AIATSIS. Native Title Research Unit. ISBN 9780855756697. Retrieved 17 August 2020. AIATSIS summary
64. Myers, Fred; Peterson, Nicolas (January 2016). "1. The origins and history of outstations as Aboriginal life projects". In Peterson, Nicolas; Myers, Fred (eds.). Experiments in self-determination: Histories of the outstation movement in Australia. Monographs in Anthropology. ANU Press. p. 2. ISBN 9781925022902. Retrieved 17 August 2020. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
65. Palmer, Kingsley (January 2016). "10. Homelands as outstations of public policy". In Peterson, Nicolas; Myers, Fred (eds.). Experiments in self-determination: Histories of the outstation movement in Australia. Monographs in Anthropology. ANU Press. ISBN 9781925022902. Retrieved 17 August 2020. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
66. Altman, Jon (25 May 2009). "No movement on the outstations". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
67. Smith, M. S.; Moran, M.; Seemann, K. (2008). "The 'viability' and resilience of communities and settlements in desert Australia". The Rangeland Journal. 30: 123. doi:10.1071/RJ07048.

 This article incorporates text by Anders Bergström et al. available under the CC BY 4.0 license.

Further reading

• "Start exploring Australian Aboriginal culture". Creative Spirits. 24 December 2018.
• "Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies". AIATSIS.

External links

• Resources in your library
• Resources in other libraries

• Media related to Aboriginal Australians at Wikimedia Commons

v t e Ancestry of Australians
Ancestral background of Australian citizens
Indigenous	Aboriginal Australians Torres Strait Islanders
Africa	Angolan Beninese Burundian Cameroonian Congolese Eritrean Ethiopian Gabonese Gambian Ghanaian Guinean Ivorian Kenyan Liberian Malawian Malian Mauritian Nigerian Rwandan Senegalese Sierra Leonean South African Tanzanian Togolese Ugandan Zambian Zimbabwean
Americas	American Canadian Caribbean and West Indian Australian Hispanic and Latin American Argentine Bolivian Brazilian Chilean Colombian Cuban Ecuadorian Guatemalan Honduran Mexican Panamanian Paraguayan Peruvian Puerto Rican Salvadoran Uruguayan Venezuelan Jamaican Trinidadian and Tobagonian
Asia	Afghan Hazara Pashtun Armenian Azerbaijani Bangladeshi Bengali Bhutanese Burmese Chin Karen Mon Cambodian Chinese Hmong Hong Kong Cantonese Mien Taiwanese Hakka Fuzhou/Hokchiu Hoklo Tibetan Uyghur East Timorese Filipino Georgian Indian Bengali Gujarati Indo-Fijian Malayali Punjabi Sindhi Tamil Telugu Indonesian Acehnese Balinese Javanese Madurese Sundanese Japanese Kazakh Korean Kyrgyz Laotian Malaysian Bruneian Kadazan Temoq Maldivian Mongolian Nepali Pakistani Baloch Hazara Pashtun Punjabi Sindhi Pathan Singaporean Sri Lankan Tamil Tajik Tatar Thai Turkmen Uzbek Vietnamese Hmong Mien
Europe	Albanian Anglo-Celtic Cornish English Irish Northern Irish Scottish Welsh Austrian Belgian Belarusian Bosnian Bulgarian Croatian Cypriot Czech Danish Dutch Estonian French Finnish German Greek Hungarian Icelandic Italian Latvian Lithuanian Macedonian Maltese Montenegrin Norwegian Polish Portuguese Romani Romanian Russian Serbian Slovak Slovene Spanish Swedish Swiss Ukrainian
Middle East and North Africa	Arab Algerian Bahraini Egyptian Emirati Iraqi Jordanian Kuwaiti Lebanese Libyan Moroccan Palestinian Saudi Somali Syrian Tunisian Assyrian Bari Berber Coptic Chaldean Darfur Dinka Iranian Israeli/Jewish Kurdish Mandaean Nubian Nuer South Sudanese Sudanese Turkish Yezidi
Oceania	Fijian Indo-Fijian Niuean Ni-Vanuatu New Zealander Māori Papua New Guinean Samoan South Sea Islander Tongan
according to Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013 and Census of Population and Housing: Reflecting Australia - Stories from the Census, 2016

• Indigenous peoples of Australia