Misplaced Pages

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Barjimoa (talk | contribs) at 15:19, 11 October 2023 (You are violating all wkipedia rules rght now). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (June 2023)

Italian RepublicRepubblica Italiana (Italian)
Flag Emblem
Anthem: "Il Canto degli Italiani" "The Song of the Italians"
Show globeShow map of EuropeLocation of Italy (dark green) – in Europe (light green & dark grey) – in the European Union (light green)  –  [Legend]
Capitaland largest city	Rome 41°54′N 12°29′E / 41.900°N 12.483°E / 41.900; 12.483
Official languages	Italian
Nationality (2021)	91.3% Italian 8.7% other
Native languages	See main article
Religion (2020)	84.4% Christianity 11.6% no religion 1.0% Islam 3.0% other
Demonym(s)	Italian
Government	Unitary parliamentary republic
• President	Sergio Mattarella
• Prime Minister	Giorgia Meloni
• President of the Senate	Ignazio La Russa
• President of the Chamber of Deputies	Lorenzo Fontana
Legislature	Parliament
• Upper house	Senate of the Republic
• Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
Formation
• Unification	17 March 1861
• Republic	2 June 1946
• Current constitution	1 January 1948
• Founded the EEC (now EU)	1 January 1958
Area
• Total	301,340 km (116,350 sq mi) (71st)
• Water (%)	1.24 (2015)
Population
• 2022 estimate	58,853,482 (25th)
• Density	201.3/km (521.4/sq mi) (71st)
GDP (PPP)	2023 estimate
• Total	$3.193 trillion (13th)
• Per capita	$54,258 (31st)
GDP (nominal)	2023 estimate
• Total	$2.186 trillion (8th)
• Per capita	$37,146 (26th)
Gini (2020)	32.5 medium inequality
HDI (2021)	0.895 very high (30th)
Currency	Euro (€) (EUR)
Time zone	UTC+1 (CET)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+2 (CEST)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy yyyy-mm-dd (AD)
Drives on	Right
Calling code	+39
ISO 3166 code	IT
Internet TLD	.it
German is co-official in South Tyrol and Friuli Venezia Giulia; French is co-official in the Aosta Valley; Slovene is co-official in the province of Trieste, the province of Gorizia, and Friuli Venezia Giulia; Ladin is co-official in South Tyrol, in Trentino and in other northern areas; Friulian is co-official in Friuli Venezia Giulia; Sardinian is co-official in Sardinia. Before 2002, the Italian lira. The euro is accepted in Campione d'Italia but its official currency is the Swiss franc. To call Campione d'Italia, it is necessary to use the Swiss code +41. The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.

Italy (Template:Lang-it [iˈtaːlja] ), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern and Western Europe. Located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, it consists of a peninsula delimited by the Alps and surrounded by several islands. Italy shares land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia and the enclaved microstates of Vatican City and San Marino. It has a territorial exclave in Switzerland (Campione) and an archipelago in the African Plate (Pelagie Islands). Italy covers an area of 301,340 km (116,350 sq mi), with a population of nearly 60 million; it is the tenth-largest country by land area in the European continent and the third-most populous member state of the European Union. Its capital and largest city is Rome.

The Italian peninsula was historically the native place and destination of numerous ancient peoples. The Latin city of Rome in central Italy, founded as a Kingdom, became a Republic that conquered the Mediterranean world and ruled it for centuries as an Empire. During the Early Middle Ages, the Western Roman Empire fell, Christian Church arose and Italy experienced inward migration from surrounding tribes. By the 11th century, Italian city-states and maritime republics expanded, bringing renewed prosperity through commerce and laying the groundwork for modern capitalism. The Italian Renaissance flourished in Florence during the 15th and 16th centuries and spread to the rest of Europe. Italian explorers also discovered new routes to the Far East and the New World, helping to usher in the European Age of Discovery. However, centuries of rivalry and infighting between the Italian city-states among other factors left the peninsula divided into numerous states until the late modern period. During the during the 17th and 18th centuries, the Italian economy declined and its commercial importance signiicantly waned.

After centuries of political and territorial divisions, Italy was almost entirely unified in 1861 following Wars of independence and the Expedition of the Thousand, establishing the Kingdom of Italy. From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, Italy rapidly industrialised, mainly in the north, and acquired a colonial empire, while the south remained largely impoverished and excluded from industrialisation, fuelling a large immigrant diaspora. Despite being one of the victorious allied powers in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil, leading to the rise of the Italian fascist dictatorship in 1922. During World War II, Italy was first part of the Axis until it surrendered to the Allied powers (1940-1943) and then, as part of its territory was occupied by Nazi Germany with fascist collaboration, a co-belligerent of the Allies during the Italian resistance and the liberation of Italy (1943-1945). Following the end of the war, the country replaced the monarchy with a republic via referendum and enjoyed a prolonged economic boom, becoming a major advanced economy.

Italy has the eighth-largest nominal GDP in the world, the ninth-largest national wealth and the third-largest central bank gold reserve. The country has been described as the "least of the great powers", and it has a significant role in regional and global economic, military, cultural, and diplomatic affairs. Italy is a founding and leading member of the European Union, and it is in numerous international institutions including the NATO, the G7, the Uniting for Consensus and many more. The source of many inventions and discoveries, the country is considered a cultural superpower and has long been a global centre of art, music, literature, cuisine, science and technology and fashion. It has the world's largest number of World Heritage Sites (58), and is the world's fifth-most visited country.

Name

Hypotheses for the etymology of the name "Italia" are numerous. One is that it was borrowed via Ancient Greek from the Oscan Víteliú 'land of calves' (cf. Lat vitulus "calf", Umb vitlo "calf"). Ancient Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides.

According to Antiochus of Syracuse, the term Italy was used by the ancient Greeks to initially refer only to the southern portion of the Bruttium peninsula corresponding to the modern province of Reggio and part of the provinces of Catanzaro and Vibo Valentia in southern Italy. Nevertheless, by his time the larger concept of Oenotria and "Italy" had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. According to Strabo's Geographica, before the expansion of the Roman Republic, the name was used by ancient Greeks to indicate the land between the strait of Messina and the line connecting the gulf of Salerno and gulf of Taranto, corresponding roughly to the current region of Calabria. The ancient Greeks gradually came to apply the name "Italia" to a larger region In addition to the "Greek Italy" in the south, historians have suggested the existence of an "Etruscan Italy" covering variable areas of central Italy.

The borders of Roman Italy, Italia, are better established. Cato's Origines, the first work of history composed in Latin, described Italy as the entire peninsula south of the Alps. According to Cato and several Roman authors, the Alps formed the "walls of Italy". In 264 BC, Roman Italy extended from the Arno and Rubicon rivers of the centre-north to the entire south. The northern area of Cisalpine Gaul was occupied by Rome in the 220s BC and became considered geographically and de facto part of Italy, but remained politically and de jure separated. It was legally merged into the administrative unit of Italy in 42 BC by the triumvir Octavian as a ratification of Caesar's unpublished acts (Acta Caesaris). The islands of Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily and Malta were added to Italy by Diocletian in 292 AD, coinciding with the whole Italian geographical region. All its inhabitants were considered Italic and Roman.

The Latin term Italicus was used to describe "a man of Italy" as opposed to a provincial. For example, Pliny the Elder notably wrote in a letter Italicus es an provincialis? meaning "are you an Italian or a provincial?". The adjective italianus, from which are derived the Italian (and also French and English) name of the Italians, is medieval and was used alternatively with Italicus during the early modern period.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which was caused by the invasion of the Ostrogoths, the Kingdom of Italy was created. After the Lombard invasions, "Italia" was retained as the name for their kingdom, and for its successor kingdom within the Holy Roman Empire, which nominally lasted until 1806, although it had de facto disintegrated due to factional politics pitting the empire against the ascendant city republics in the 13th century.

History

Prehistory and antiquity

Thousands of Lower Paleolithic artefacts have been recovered from Monte Poggiolo, dating as far back as 850,000 years. Excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Middle Palaeolithic period some 200,000 years ago, while modern humans appeared about 40,000 years ago at Riparo Mochi. Archaeological sites from this period include Addaura cave, Altamura, Ceprano, and Gravina in Puglia.

The Ancient peoples of pre-Roman Italy – such as the Umbrians, the Latins (from which the Romans emerged), Volsci, Oscans, Samnites, Sabines, the Celts, the Ligures, the Veneti, the Iapygians, and many others – were Indo-European peoples, most of them specifically of the Italic group. The main historic peoples of possible non-Indo-European or pre-Indo-European heritage include the Etruscans of central and northern Italy, the Elymians and the Sicani in Sicily, and the prehistoric Sardinians, who gave birth to the Nuragic civilisation. Other ancient populations being of undetermined language families and of possible non-Indo-European origin include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni, known for their rock carvings in Valcamonica, the largest collections of prehistoric petroglyphs in the world. A well-preserved natural mummy known as Ötzi the Iceman, determined to be 5,000 years old (between 3400 and 3100 BCE, Copper Age), was discovered in the Similaun glacier of South Tyrol in 1991.

The first foreign colonisers were the Phoenicians, who initially established colonies and founded various emporiums on the coasts of Sicily and Sardinia. Some of these soon became small urban centres and were developed parallel to the ancient Greek colonies; among the main centres there were the cities of Motya, Zyz (modern Palermo), Soluntum in Sicily, and Nora, Sulci, and Tharros in Sardinia.

Between the 17th and the 11th centuries BC Mycenaean Greeks established contacts with Italy and in the 8th and 7th centuries BC a number of Greek colonies were established all along the coast of Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula, that became known as Magna Graecia.

Ionian settlers founded Elaia, Kyme, Rhegion, Naxos, Zankles, Hymera, and Katane. Doric colonists founded Taras, Syrakousai, Megara Hyblaia, Leontinoi, Akragas, Ghelas; the Syracusans founded Ankón and Adria; the megarese founded Selinunte. The Achaeans founded Sybaris, Poseidonia, Kroton, Lokroi Epizephyrioi, and Metapontum; tarantini and thuriots found Herakleia. The Greek colonization placed the Italic peoples in contact with democratic forms of government and with high artistic and cultural expressions.

Ancient Rome

Rome, a settlement around a ford on the river Tiber in central Italy conventionally founded in 753 BC, was ruled for a period of 244 years by a monarchical system, initially with sovereigns of Latin and Sabine origin, later by Etruscan kings. The tradition handed down seven kings: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus. In 509 BC, the Romans expelled the last king from their city, favouring a government of the Senate and the People (SPQR) and establishing an oligarchic republic.

The Italian Peninsula, named Italia, was consolidated into a single entity during the Roman expansion and conquest of new lands at the expense of the other Italic tribes, Etruscans, Celts, and Greeks. A permanent association with most of the local tribes and cities was formed, and Rome began the conquest of Western Europe, Northern Africa and the Middle East. In the wake of Julius Caesar's rise and death in the first century BC, Rome grew over the course of centuries into a massive empire stretching from Britain to the borders of Persia, and engulfing the whole Mediterranean basin, in which Greek and Roman and many other cultures merged into a unique civilisation. The long and triumphant reign of the first emperor, Augustus, began a golden age of peace and prosperity. Roman Italy remained the metropole of the empire, and as the homeland of the Romans and the territory of the capital, maintained a special status which made it Domina Provinciarum ("ruler of the provinces", the latter being all the remaining territories outside Italy). More than two centuries of stability followed, during which Italy was referred to as the Rectrix Mundi ("governor of the world") and Omnium Terrarum Parens ("parent of all lands").

The Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time, and it was one of the largest empires in world history. At its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. The Roman legacy has deeply influenced Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world; among the many legacies of Roman dominance are the widespread use of the Romance languages derived from Latin, the numerical system, the modern Western alphabet and calendar, and the emergence of Christianity as a major world religion.

Middle Ages

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Italy fell under the power of Odoacer's kingdom, and, later, was seized by the Ostrogoths, followed in the 6th century by a brief reconquest under Byzantine Emperor Justinian. The invasion of another Germanic tribe, the Lombards, late in the same century, reduced the Byzantine presence to the rump realm of the Exarchate of Ravenna and started the end of political unity of the peninsula for the next 1,300 years. The peninsula was therefore divided as follows: northern Italy and Tuscany formed the Lombard kingdom, with its capital in Pavia, while in central-southern Italy the Lombards controlled the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. The remaining part of the peninsula remained under the Byzantines and was divided between the exarchate of Italy, based in Ravenna, the Duchy of Rome, the Duchy of Naples, the Duchy of Calabria and Sicily, the latter directly dependent on the Emperor of Constantinople. Invasions of the peninsula caused a chaotic succession of barbarian kingdoms and the so-called "dark ages". The Lombard kingdom was subsequently absorbed into the Frankish Empire by Charlemagne in the late 8th century and became the Kingdom of Italy. The Franks also helped the formation of the Papal States in central Italy. Until the 13th century, Italian politics was dominated by the relations between the Holy Roman Emperors and the Papacy, with most of the Italian city-states siding with the former (Ghibellines) or with the latter (Guelphs) for momentary convenience.

The Germanic Emperor and the Roman Pontiff became the universal powers of medieval Europe. However, the conflict over the investiture controversy and the clash between Guelphs and Ghibellines led to the end of the Imperial-feudal system in the north of Italy where city-states gained independence. The investiture controversy was finally resolved by the Concordat of Worms. In 1176 a league of city-states, the Lombard League, defeated the German emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the Battle of Legnano, thus ensuring effective independence for most of northern and central Italian cities.

Italian city-states such as Milan, Florence and Venice played a crucial innovative role in financial development, devising the main instruments and practices of banking and the emergence of new forms of social and economic organization. In coastal and southern areas, the maritime republics grew to eventually dominate the Mediterranean and monopolise trade routes to the Orient. They were independent thalassocratic city-states, though most of them originated from territories once belonging to the Byzantine Empire. All these cities during the time of their independence had similar systems of government in which the merchant class had considerable power. Although in practice these were oligarchical, and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy, the relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement. The four best known maritime republics were Venice, Genoa, Pisa and Amalfi; the others were Ancona, Gaeta, Noli, and Ragusa. Each of the maritime republics had dominion over different overseas lands, including many Mediterranean islands (especially Sardinia and Corsica), lands on the Adriatic, Aegean, and Black Sea (Crimea), and commercial colonies in the Near East and in North Africa. Venice maintained enormous tracts of land in Greece, Cyprus, Istria, and Dalmatia until as late as the mid-17th century.

Venice and Genoa were Europe's main gateways to trade with the East, and producers of fine glass, while Florence was a capital of silk, wool, banking, and jewellery. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant that large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned. The republics were heavily involved in the Crusades, providing support and transport, but most especially taking advantage of the political and trading opportunities resulting from these wars. Italy first felt the huge economic changes in Europe which led to the commercial revolution: the Republic of Venice was able to defeat the Byzantine Empire and finance the voyages of Marco Polo to Asia; the first universities were formed in Italian cities, and scholars such as Thomas Aquinas obtained international fame; Frederick I of Sicily made Italy the political-cultural centre of a reign that temporarily included the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Jerusalem; capitalism and banking families emerged in Florence, where Dante and Giotto were active around 1300.

In the south, Sicily had become an Arab Islamic emirate in the 9th century, thriving until the Italo-Normans conquered it in the late 11th century together with most of the Lombard and Byzantine principalities of southern Italy. Through a complex series of events, southern Italy developed as a unified kingdom, first under the House of Hohenstaufen, then under the Capetian House of Anjou and, from the 15th century, the House of Aragon. In Sardinia, the former Byzantine provinces became independent states known in Italian as Judicates, although some parts of the island fell under Genoese or Pisan rule until eventual Aragonese annexation in the 15th century. The Black Death pandemic of 1348 left its mark on Italy by killing perhaps one third of the population.

Early Modern

Italy was the birthplace and heart of the Renaissance during the 1400s and 1500s. The Italian Renaissance marked the transition from the medieval period to the modern age as Europe recovered, economically and culturally, from the crises of the Late Middle Ages and entered the Early Modern Period. The Italian polities were now regional states effectively ruled by Princes, de facto monarchs in control of trade and administration, and their courts became major centres of the arts and sciences. The Italian princedoms represented a first form of modern states as opposed to feudal monarchies and multinational empires. The princedoms were led by political dynasties and merchant families such as the Medici in Florence, the Visconti and Sforza in the Duchy of Milan, the Doria in the Republic of Genoa, the Loredan, Mocenigo and Barbarigo in the Republic of Venice, the Este in Ferrara, and the Gonzaga in Mantua. The Renaissance was therefore a result of the wealth accumulated by Italian merchant cities combined with the patronage of its dominant families. Italian Renaissance exercised a dominant influence on subsequent European painting and sculpture for centuries afterwards, with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Brunelleschi, Botticelli, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giotto, Donatello, and Titian, and architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Donato Bramante.

Following the conclusion of the western schism in favour of Rome at the Council of Constance (1415–1417), the new Pope Martin V returned to the Papal States after a three years-long journey that touched many Italian cities and restored Italy as the sole centre of Western Christianity. During the course of this voyage, the Medici Bank was made the official credit institution of the Papacy, and several significant ties were established between the Church and the new political dynasties of the peninsula. The Popes' status as elective monarchs turned the conclaves and consistories of the Renaissance into political battles between the courts of Italy for primacy in the peninsula and access to the immense resources of the Catholic Church. In 1439, Pope Eugenius IV and the Byzantine Emperor John VIII Palaiologos signed a reconciliation agreement between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church at the Council of Florence hosted by Cosimo the old de Medici. In 1453, Italian forces under Giovanni Giustiniani were sent by Pope Nicholas V to defend the Walls of Constantinople but the decisive battle was lost to the more advanced Turkish army equipped with cannons, and Byzantium fell to Sultan Mehmed II.

The fall of Constantinople led to the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy, fueling the rediscovery of Greco-Roman Humanism. Humanist rulers such as Federico da Montefeltro and Pope Pius II worked to establish ideal cities where man is the measure of all things, and therefore founded Urbino and Pienza respectively. Pico della Mirandola wrote the Oration on the Dignity of Man, considered the manifesto of Renaissance Humanism, in which he stressed the importance of free will in human beings. The humanist historian Leonardo Bruni was the first to divide human history in three periods: Antiquity, Middle Ages and Modernity. The second consequence of the Fall of Constantinople was the beginning of the Age of Discovery.

Italian explorers and navigators from the dominant maritime republics, eager to find an alternative route to the Indies in order to bypass the Ottoman Empire, offered their services to monarchs of Atlantic countries and played a key role in ushering the Age of Discovery and the European colonization of the Americas. The most notable among them were: Christopher Columbus (Template:Lang-it), colonizer in the name of Spain, who is credited with discovering the New World and the opening of the Americas for conquest and settlement by Europeans; John Cabot (Template:Lang-it), sailing for England, who was the first European to set foot in "New Found Land" and explore parts of the North American continent in 1497; Amerigo Vespucci, sailing for Portugal, who first demonstrated in about 1501 that the New World (in particular Brazil) was not Asia as initially conjectured, but a fourth continent previously unknown to people of the Old World (America is named after him); and Giovanni da Verrazzano, at the service of France, renowned as the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524.

Following the fall of Constantinople, the wars in Lombardy came to an end and a defensive alliance known as Italic League was formed between Venice, Naples, Florence, Milan, and the Papacy. Lorenzo the Magnificent de Medici was the greatest Florentine patron of the Renaissance and supporter of the Italic League. He notably avoided the collapse of the League in the aftermath of the Pazzi Conspiracy and during the aborted invasion of Italy by the Turks. However, the military campaign of Charles VIII of France in Italy caused the end of the Italic League and initiated the Italian Wars between the Valois and the Habsburgs. During the High Renaissance of the 1500s, Italy was therefore both the main European battleground and the cultural-economic centre of the continent. Popes such as Julius II (1503–1513) fought for the control of Italy against foreign monarchs, others such as Paul III (1534–1549) preferred to mediate between the European powers in order to secure peace in Italy. In the middle of this conflict, the Medici popes Leo X (1513–1521) and Clement VII (1523–1534) opposed the Protestant reformation and advanced the interests of their family. In 1559, at the end of the French invasions of Italy and of the Italian wars, the many states of northern Italy remained part of the Holy Roman Empire, indirectly subject to the Austrian Habsburgs, while all of Southern Italy (Naples, Sicily, Sardinia) and Milan were under Spanish Habsburg rule.

The Papacy remained a powerful force and launched the Counter-reformation. Key events of the period include: the Council of Trent (1545–1563); the excommunication of Elizabeth I (1570) and the Battle of Lepanto (1571), both occurring during the pontificate of Pius V; the construction of the Gregorian observatory, the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, and the Jesuit China mission of Matteo Ricci under Pope Gregory XIII; the French Wars of Religion; the Long Turkish War and the execution of Giordano Bruno in 1600, under Pope Clement VIII; the birth of the Lyncean Academy of the Papal States, of which the main figure was Galileo Galilei (later put on trial); the final phases of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) during the pontificates of Urban VIII and Innocent X; and the formation of the last Holy League by Innocent XI during the Great Turkish War.

The Italian economy declined during the 1600s and 1700s. Following the European wars of succession of the 18th century, the North fell under the influence of the Habsburg-Lorraine of Austria, while the south passed to a cadet branch of the Spanish Bourbons. During the Coalition Wars, northern and central Italy was reorganised by Napoleon in a number of Sister Republics of France and later as a Kingdom of Italy in personal union with the French Empire. The southern half of the peninsula was administered by Joachim Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law, who was crowned as King of Naples. The 1814 Congress of Vienna restored the situation of the late 18th century, but the ideals of the French Revolution could not be eradicated, and soon re-surfaced during the political upheavals that characterised the first part of the 19th century.

During the Napoleonic era, in 1797, the first official adoption of the Italian tricolour as a national flag by a sovereign Italian state, the Cispadane Republic, a Napoleonic sister republic of Revolutionary France, took place, on the basis of the events following the French Revolution (1789–1799) which, among its ideals, advocated the national self-determination. This event is celebrated by the Tricolour Day. The Italian national colours appeared for the first time on a tricolour cockade in 1789, anticipating by seven years the first green, white and red Italian military war flag, which was adopted by the Lombard Legion in 1796.

Unification

The birth of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of efforts by Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the House of Savoy to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entire Italian Peninsula. By the mid-19th century, rising Italian nationalism, along with other social, economic, and military events, led to a period of revolutionary political upheaval. Following the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the political and social Italian unification movement, or Risorgimento, emerged to unite Italy consolidating the different states of the peninsula and liberate it from foreign control. A prominent radical figure was the patriotic journalist Giuseppe Mazzini, member of the secret revolutionary society Carbonari and founder of the influential political movement Young Italy in the early 1830s, who favoured a unitary republic and advocated a broad nationalist movement. His prolific output of propaganda helped the unification movement stay active.

In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the song "Il Canto degli Italiani", the Italian national anthem since 1946, took place. Il Canto degli Italiani, written by Goffredo Mameli set to music by Michele Novaro, is also known as the Inno di Mameli, after the author of the lyrics, or Fratelli d'Italia, from its opening line.

The most famous member of Young Italy was the revolutionary and general Giuseppe Garibaldi, renowned for his extremely loyal followers, who led the Italian republican drive for unification in Southern Italy. However, the Northern Italy monarchy of the House of Savoy in the Kingdom of Sardinia, whose government was led by Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, also had ambitions of establishing a united Italian state. In the context of the 1848 liberal revolutions that swept through Europe, an unsuccessful first war of independence was declared on Austria. In 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia became an ally of Britain and France in the Crimean War, giving Cavour's diplomacy legitimacy in the eyes of the great powers. The Kingdom of Sardinia again attacked the Austrian Empire in the Second Italian War of Independence of 1859, with the aid of France, resulting in liberating Lombardy. On the basis of the Plombières Agreement, the Kingdom of Sardinia ceded Savoy and Nice to France, an event that caused the Niçard exodus, that was the emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy, and the Niçard Vespers.

In 1860–1861, Garibaldi led the drive for unification in Naples and Sicily (the Expedition of the Thousand), while the House of Savoy troops occupied the central territories of the Italian peninsula, except Rome and part of Papal States. Teano was the site of the famous meeting of 26 October 1860 between Giuseppe Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel II, last King of Sardinia, in which Garibaldi shook Victor Emanuel's hand and hailed him as King of Italy; thus, Garibaldi sacrificed republican hopes for the sake of Italian unity under a monarchy. Cavour agreed to include Garibaldi's Southern Italy allowing it to join the union with the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1860. This allowed the Sardinian government to declare a united Italian kingdom on 17 March 1861. Victor Emmanuel II then became the first king of a united Italy, and the capital was moved from Turin to Florence. The title of "King of Italy" had been out of use since the abdication of Napoleon I of France on 6 April 1814.

In 1866, Victor Emmanuel II allied with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War, waging the Third Italian War of Independence which allowed Italy to annexe Venetia. Finally, in 1870, as France abandoned its garrisons in Rome during the disastrous Franco-Prussian War to keep the large Prussian Army at bay, the Italians rushed to fill the power gap by taking over the Papal States. Italian unification was completed and shortly afterwards Italy's capital was moved to Rome. Victor Emmanuel, Garibaldi, Cavour, and Mazzini have been referred as Italy's Four Fathers of the Fatherland.

Liberal period

The new Kingdom of Italy obtained Great Power status. The Constitutional Law of the Kingdom of Sardinia the Albertine Statute of 1848, was extended to the whole Kingdom of Italy in 1861, and provided for basic freedoms of the new State, but electoral laws excluded the non-propertied and uneducated classes from voting. The government of the new kingdom took place in a framework of parliamentary constitutional monarchy dominated by liberal forces. As Northern Italy quickly industrialised, the South and rural areas of the North remained underdeveloped and overpopulated, forcing millions of people to migrate abroad and fuelling a large and influential diaspora. The Italian Socialist Party constantly increased in strength, challenging the traditional liberal and conservative establishment.

Starting in the last two decades of the 19th century, Italy developed into a colonial power by forcing under its rule Eritrea and Somalia in East Africa, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in North Africa (later unified in the colony of Libya) and the Dodecanese islands. From 2 November 1899 to 7 September 1901, Italy also participated as part of the Eight-Nation Alliance forces during the Boxer Rebellion in China; on 7 September 1901, a concession in Tientsin was ceded to the country, and on 7 June 1902, the concession was taken into Italian possession and administered by a consul. In 1913, male universal suffrage was adopted. The pre-war period dominated by Giovanni Giolitti, Prime Minister five times between 1892 and 1921, was characterised by the economic, industrial, and political-cultural modernization of Italian society.

Italy entered into the First World War in 1915 with the aim of completing national unity: for this reason, the Italian intervention in the First World War is also considered the Fourth Italian War of Independence, in a historiographical perspective that identifies in the latter the conclusion of the unification of Italy, whose military actions began during the revolutions of 1848 with the First Italian War of Independence.

Italy, nominally allied with the German Empire and the Empire of Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance, in 1915 joined the Allies into World War I with a promise of substantial territorial gains, that included western Inner Carniola, former Austrian Littoral, Dalmatia as well as parts of the Ottoman Empire. The country gave a fundamental contribution to the victory of the conflict as one of the "Big Four" top Allied powers. The war on the Italian Front was initially inconclusive, as the Italian army got stuck in a long attrition war in the Alps, making little progress and suffering heavy losses. However, the reorganization of the army and the conscription of the so-called '99 Boys (Ragazzi del '99, all males born in 1899 who were turning 18) led to more effective Italian victories in major battles, such as on Monte Grappa and in a series of battles on the Piave river. Eventually, in October 1918, the Italians launched a massive offensive, culminating in the victory of Vittorio Veneto. The Italian victory, which was announced by the Bollettino della Vittoria and the Bollettino della Vittoria Navale, marked the end of the war on the Italian Front, secured the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and was chiefly instrumental in ending the First World War less than two weeks later. Italian armed forces were also involved in the African theatre, the Balkan theatre, the Middle Eastern theatre, and then took part in the Occupation of Constantinople.

During the war, more than 650,000 Italian soldiers and as many civilians died, and the kingdom went to the brink of bankruptcy. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Rapallo (1920) allowed the annexation of Trentino Alto-Adige, Julian March, Istria, Kvarner as well as the Dalmatian city of Zara. The subsequent Treaty of Rome (1924) led to the annexation of the city of Fiume to Italy. Italy did not receive other territories promised by the Treaty of London (1915), so this outcome was denounced as a Mutilated victory. The rhetoric of Mutilated victory was adopted by Benito Mussolini and led to the rise of Italian fascism, becoming a key point in the propaganda of Fascist Italy. Historians regard Mutilated victory as a "political myth", used by fascists to fuel Italian imperialism and obscure the successes of liberal Italy in the aftermath of World War I. Italy also gained a permanent seat in the League of Nations's executive council.

Fascist regime

The socialist agitations that followed the devastation of the Great War, inspired by the Russian Revolution, led to counter-revolution and repression throughout Italy. The liberal establishment, fearing a Soviet-style revolution, started to endorse the small National Fascist Party, led by Benito Mussolini. In October 1922 the Blackshirts of the National Fascist Party attempted a mass demonstration and a coup named the "March on Rome" which failed but at the last minute, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to proclaim a state of siege and appointed Mussolini prime minister, thereby transferring political power to the fascists without armed conflict. Over the next few years, Mussolini banned all political parties and curtailed personal liberties, thus forming a dictatorship. These actions attracted international attention and eventually inspired similar dictatorships such as Nazi Germany and Francoist Spain.

Italian Fascism is based upon Italian nationalism and imperialism, and in particular seeks to complete what it considers as the incomplete project of the unification of Italy by incorporating Italia Irredenta (unredeemed Italy) into the state of Italy. To the east of Italy, the Fascists claimed that Dalmatia was a land of Italian culture whose Italians, including those of Italianized South Slavic descent, had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy, and supported the return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage. Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries, similarly to Istria, via the Roman Empire and the Republic of Venice. To the south of Italy, the Fascists claimed Malta, which belonged to the United Kingdom, and Corfu, which instead belonged to Greece; to the north claimed Italian Switzerland, while to the west claimed Corsica, Nice, and Savoy, which belonged to France. The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the island's italianità. The Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic, and linguistic grounds.

The Armistice of Villa Giusti, which ended fighting between Italy and Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I, resulted in Italian annexation of neighbouring parts of Yugoslavia. During the interwar period, the fascist Italian government undertook a campaign of Italianisation in the areas it annexed, which suppressed Slavic language, schools, political parties, and cultural institutions. Between 1922 and the beginning of World War II, the affected people were also the German-speaking and Ladin-speaking populations of Trentino-Alto Adige, and the French- and Arpitan-speaking regions of the western Alps, such as the Aosta valley.

Mussolini promised to bring Italy back as a great power in Europe, building a "New Roman Empire" and holding power over the Mediterranean Sea. In propaganda, Fascists used the ancient Roman motto "Mare Nostrum" (Latin for "Our Sea") to describe the Mediterranean. For this reason the Fascist regime engaged in interventionist foreign policy. In 1923, the Greek island of Corfu was briefly occupied by Italy, after the assassination of General Tellini in Greek territory. In 1925, Italy forced Albania to become a de facto protectorate. In 1935, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia and founded Italian East Africa, resulting in an international alienation and leading to Italy's withdrawal from the League of Nations; Italy allied with Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan and strongly supported Francisco Franco in the Spanish civil war. In 1939, Italy formally annexed Albania. Italy entered World War II on 10 June 1940. The Italians initially advanced in British Somaliland, Egypt, the Balkans (establishing the Governorate of Dalmatia and Montenegro, the Province of Ljubljana, and the puppet states Independent State of Croatia and Hellenic State), and eastern fronts. They were, however, subsequently defeated on the Eastern Front as well as in the East African campaign and the North African campaign, losing as a result their territories in Africa and in the Balkans.

During World War II, Italian war crimes included extrajudicial killings and ethnic cleansing by deportation of about 25,000 people, mainly Jews, Croats, and Slovenians, to the Italian concentration camps, such as Rab, Gonars, Monigo, Renicci di Anghiari, and elsewhere. Yugoslav Partisans perpetrated their own crimes against the local ethnic Italian population (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) during and after the war, including the foibe massacres. In Italy and Yugoslavia, unlike in Germany, few war crimes were prosecuted.

An Allied invasion of Sicily began in July 1943, leading to the collapse of the Fascist regime and the fall of Mussolini on 25 July. Mussolini was deposed and arrested by order of King Victor Emmanuel III in co-operation with the majority of the members of the Grand Council of Fascism, which passed a motion of no confidence. On 8 September, Italy signed the Armistice of Cassibile, ending its war with the Allies. Shortly thereafter, the Germans, with the assistance of the Italian fascists, succeeded in taking control of northern and central Italy. The country remained a battlefield for the rest of the war, with the Allies slowly moving up from the south.

In the north, the Germans set up the Italian Social Republic (RSI), a Nazi puppet state with Mussolini installed as leader after he was rescued by German paratroopers. Some Italian troops in the south were organised into the Italian Co-belligerent Army, which fought alongside the Allies for the rest of the war, while other Italian troops, loyal to Mussolini and his RSI, continued to fight alongside the Germans in the National Republican Army. Also, the post-armistice period saw the rise of a large anti-fascist resistance movement, the Resistenza. As result, the country descended into civil war; the Italian resistance fought a guerrilla war against the Nazi German occupiers and Italian Fascist forces, while clashes between the Fascist RSI Army and the Royalist Italian Co-Belligerent Army were rare. In late April 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape north, but was captured and summarily executed near Lake Como by Italian partisans. His body was then taken to Milan, where it was hung upside down at a service station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise.

Hostilities ended on 29 April 1945, when the German forces in Italy surrendered. Nearly half a million Italians (including civilians) died in the conflict, society was divided and the Italian economy had been all but destroyed; per capita income in 1944 was at its lowest point since the beginning of the 20th century. The aftermath of World War II left Italy also with an anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the Fascist regime for the previous twenty years. These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement.

Republican era

Italy became a republic after the 1946 Italian institutional referendum held on 2 June 1946, a day celebrated since as Festa della Repubblica. This was the first time that Italian women voted at the national level, and the second time overall considering the local elections that were held a few months earlier in some cities. Victor Emmanuel III's son, Umberto II, was forced to abdicate and exiled. The Republican Constitution was approved on 1 January 1948. Under the Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947, Istria, Kvarner, most of the Julian March as well as the Dalmatian city of Zara was annexed by Yugoslavia causing the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus, which led to the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic Istro-Romanians, choosing to maintain Italian citizenship. Later, the Free Territory of Trieste was divided between the two states. Italy also lost all of its colonial possessions, formally ending the Italian Empire. In 1950, Italian Somaliland was made a United Nations Trust Territory under Italian administration until 1 July 1960. The Italian border that applies today has existed since 1975, when Trieste was formally re-annexed to Italy.

Fears of a possible Communist takeover proved crucial for the first universal suffrage electoral outcome on 18 April 1948, when the Christian Democrats, under the leadership of Alcide De Gasperi, obtained a landslide victory. Consequently, in 1949 Italy became a member of NATO. The Marshall Plan helped to revive the Italian economy which, until the late 1960s, enjoyed a period of sustained economic growth commonly called the "Economic Miracle". In the 1950's, Italy became one of the six founding countries of the European Communities, following the 1952 establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community, and subsequent 1958 creations of the European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy Community. In 1993, the former two of these were incorporated into the European Union.

From the late 1960s until the early 1980s, the country experienced the Years of Lead, a period characterised by economic crisis, especially after the 1973 oil crisis, widespread social conflicts and terrorist massacres carried out by opposing extremist groups, with the alleged involvement of US and Soviet intelligence. The Years of Lead culminated in the assassination of the Christian Democrat leader Aldo Moro in 1978 and the Bologna railway station massacre in 1980, where 85 people died.

In the 1980s, for the first time since 1945, two governments were led by non-Christian-Democrat premiers: one republican, Giovanni Spadolini, and one socialist, Bettino Craxi; the Christian Democrats remained, however, the main government party. During Craxi's government, the economy recovered and Italy became the world's fifth-largest industrial nation after it gained the entry into the Group of Seven in the 1970s. However, as a result of his spending policies, the Italian national debt skyrocketed during the Craxi era, soon passing 100% of the country's GDP.

Italy faced several terror attacks between 1992 and 1993 perpetrated by the Sicilian Mafia as a consequence of several life sentences pronounced during the "Maxi Trial", and of the new anti-mafia measures launched by the government. In 1992, two major dynamite attacks killed the judges Giovanni Falcone (23 May in the Capaci bombing) and Paolo Borsellino (19 July in the Via D'Amelio bombing). One year later (May–July 1993), tourist spots were attacked, such as the Via dei Georgofili in Florence, Via Palestro in Milan, and the Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano and Via San Teodoro in Rome, leaving 10 dead and 93 injured and causing severe damage to cultural heritage such as the Uffizi Gallery. The Catholic Church openly condemned the Mafia, and two churches were bombed and an anti-Mafia priest shot dead in Rome.

Also in the early 1990s, Italy faced significant challenges, as voters – disenchanted with political paralysis, massive public debt and the extensive corruption system (known as Tangentopoli) uncovered by the Clean Hands (Mani Pulite) investigation – demanded radical reforms. The scandals involved all major parties, but especially those in the government coalition: the Christian Democrats, who ruled for almost 50 years, underwent a severe crisis and eventually disbanded, splitting up into several factions. The Communists reorganised as a social-democratic force. During the 1990s and the 2000s, centre-right (dominated by media magnate Silvio Berlusconi) and centre-left coalitions (led by university professor Romano Prodi) alternately governed the country.

Amidst the Great Recession, Berlusconi resigned in 2011, and his conservative government was replaced by the technocratic cabinet of Mario Monti. Following the 2013 general election, the Vice-Secretary of the Democratic Party Enrico Letta formed a new government at the head of a right-left Grand coalition. In 2014, challenged by the new Secretary of the PD Matteo Renzi, Letta resigned and was replaced by Renzi. The new government started constitutional reforms such as the abolition of the Senate and a new electoral law. On 4 December the constitutional reform was rejected in a referendum and Renzi resigned; the Foreign Affairs Minister Paolo Gentiloni was appointed new Prime Minister.

In the European migrant crisis of the 2010s, Italy was the entry point and leading destination for most asylum seekers entering the EU. From 2013 to 2018, the country took in over 700,000 migrants and refugees, mainly from sub-Saharan Africa, which caused strain on the public purse and a surge in the support for far-right or euro-sceptic political parties. The 2018 general election was characterised by a strong showing of the Five Star Movement and the League and the university professor Giuseppe Conte became the Prime Minister at the head of a populist coalition between these two parties. However, after only fourteen months the League withdrew its support to Conte, who formed a new unprecedented government coalition between the Five Star Movement and the centre-left.

In 2020, Italy was severely hit by the COVID-19 pandemic. From March to May, Conte's government imposed a national lockdown as a measure to limit the spread of the disease, while further restrictions were introduced during the following winter. The measures, despite being widely approved by the public opinion, were also described as the largest suppression of constitutional rights in the history of the republic. With more than 155,000 confirmed victims, Italy was one of the countries with the highest total number of deaths in the worldwide coronavirus pandemic. The pandemic caused also a severe economic disruption, in which Italy resulted as one of the most affected countries.

In February 2021, after a government crisis within his majority, Conte was forced to resign and Mario Draghi, former president of the European Central Bank, formed a national unity government supported by almost all the main parties, pledging to oversee implementation of economic stimulus to face the crisis caused by the pandemic. On 22 October 2022, Giorgia Meloni was sworn in as Italy's first female prime minister. Her Brothers of Italy party formed a right-wing government with the far-right League and Berlusconi's Forza Italia.

Geography

Italy, whose territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical region, is located in Southern Europe and it is also considered a part of western Europe, between latitudes 35° and 47° N, and longitudes 6° and 19° E. To the north, Italy borders France, Switzerland, Austria, and Slovenia and is roughly delimited by the Alpine watershed, enclosing the Po Valley and the Venetian Plain. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula and the two Mediterranean islands of Sicily and Sardinia (the two biggest islands of the Mediterranean), in addition to many smaller islands. The sovereign states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland.

The country's total area is 301,230 square kilometres (116,306 sq mi), of which 294,020 km (113,522 sq mi) is land and 7,210 km (2,784 sq mi) is water. Including the islands, Italy has a coastline and border of 7,600 kilometres (4,722 miles) on the Adriatic, Ionian, Tyrrhenian seas, and borders shared with France (488 km (303 mi)), Austria (430 km (267 mi)), Slovenia (232 km (144 mi)) and Switzerland (740 km (460 mi)). San Marino (39 km (24 mi)) and Vatican City (3.2 km (2.0 mi)), both enclaves, account for the remainder.

Over 35% of the Italian territory is mountainous. The Apennine Mountains form the peninsula's backbone, and the Alps form most of its northern boundary, where Italy's highest point is located on Mont Blanc summit (Monte Bianco) (4,810 m or 15,780 ft). Other worldwide-known mountains in Italy include the Matterhorn (Monte Cervino), Monte Rosa, Gran Paradiso in the West Alps, and Bernina, Stelvio and Dolomites along the eastern side.

The Po, Italy's longest river (652 kilometres or 405 miles), flows from the Alps on the western border with France and crosses the Padan plain on its way to the Adriatic Sea. The Po Valley is the largest plain in Italy, with 46,000 km (18,000 sq mi), and it represents over 70% of the total plain area in the country.

Many elements of the Italian territory are of volcanic origin. Most of the small islands and archipelagos in the south, like Capraia, Ponza, Ischia, Eolie, Ustica and Pantelleria are volcanic islands. There are also active volcanoes: Mount Etna in Sicily (the largest active volcano in Europe), Vulcano, Stromboli, and Vesuvius (the only active volcano on mainland Europe).

The five largest lakes are, in order of diminishing size: Garda (367.94 km or 142 sq mi), Maggiore (212.51 km or 82 sq mi, whose minor northern part is part of Switzerland), Como (145.9 km or 56 sq mi), Trasimeno (124.29 km or 48 sq mi) and Bolsena (113.55 km or 44 sq mi). Four different seas surround the Italian Peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea from three sides: the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea in the south, and the Ligurian Sea and the Tyrrhenian Sea in the west. The longest Italian river is the Po, which flows for either 652 km (405 mi) or 682 km (424 mi). Most of the rivers of Italy drain either into the Adriatic Sea or the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Although the country includes the Italian peninsula, adjacent islands, and most of the southern Alpine basin, some of Italy's territory extends beyond the Alpine basin and some islands are located outside the Eurasian continental shelf. These territories are the comuni of: Livigno, Sexten, Innichen, Toblach (in part), Chiusaforte, Tarvisio, Graun im Vinschgau (in part), which are all part of the Danube's drainage basin, while the Val di Lei constitutes part of the Rhine's basin and the islands of Lampedusa and Lampione are on the African continental shelf.

Environment

After its quick industrial growth, Italy took a long time to confront its environmental problems. After several improvements, it now ranks 84th in the world for ecological sustainability. National parks cover about 5% of the country, while the total area protected by national parks, regional parks and nature reserves covers about 10.5% of the Italian territory, to which must be added 12% of coasts protected by marine protected areas.

In the last decade, Italy has become one of the world's leading producers of renewable energy, ranking as the world's fourth largest holder of installed solar energy capacity and the sixth largest holder of wind power capacity in 2010. Renewable energies provided approximately 37% Italy's energy consumption in 2020. However, air pollution remains a severe problem, especially in the industrialised north, reaching the tenth highest level worldwide of industrial carbon dioxide emissions in the 1990s. Italy is the twelfth-largest carbon dioxide producer.

Extensive traffic and congestion in the largest metropolitan areas continue to cause severe environmental and health issues, even if smog levels have decreased dramatically since the 1970s and 1980s, and the presence of smog is becoming an increasingly rarer phenomenon and levels of sulphur dioxide are decreasing.

Many watercourses and coastal stretches have also been contaminated by industrial and agricultural activity, while because of rising water levels, Venice has been regularly flooded throughout recent years. Waste from industrial activity is not always disposed of by legal means and has led to permanent health effects on inhabitants of affected areas, as in the case of the Seveso disaster. The country has also operated several nuclear reactors between 1963 and 1990 but, after the Chernobyl disaster and a referendum on the issue the nuclear programme was terminated, a decision that was overturned by the government in 2008, planning to build up to four nuclear power plants with French technology. This was in turn struck down by a referendum following the Fukushima nuclear accident.

Deforestation, illegal building developments and poor land-management policies have led to significant erosion all over Italy's mountainous regions, leading to major ecological disasters like the 1963 Vajont Dam flood, the 1998 Sarno and 2009 Messina mudslides. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.65/10, ranking it 142nd globally out of 172 countries.

Biodiversity

Italy has probably the highest level of faunal biodiversity in Europe, with over 57,000 species recorded, representing more than a third of all European fauna, and the highest level of biodiversity of both animal and plant species within the European Union. Italy's varied geological structure contributes to its high climate and habitat diversity. The Italian peninsula is in the centre of the Mediterranean Sea, forming a corridor between central Europe and North Africa, and has 8,000 km (5,000 mi) of coastline. Italy also receives species from the Balkans, Eurasia, and the Middle East. Italy's varied geological structure, including the Alps and the Apennines, Central Italian woodlands, and Southern Italian Garigue and Maquis shrubland, also contribute to high climate and habitat diversity.

The fauna of Italy includes 4,777 endemic animal species, which include the Sardinian long-eared bat, Sardinian red deer, spectacled salamander, brown cave salamander, Italian newt, Italian frog, Apennine yellow-bellied toad, Italian wall lizard, Aeolian wall lizard, Sicilian wall lizard, Italian Aesculapian snake, and Sicilian pond turtle. In Italy there are 119 mammals species, 550 bird species, 69 reptile species, 39 amphibian species, 623 fish species and 56,213 invertebrate species, of which 37,303 insect species.

The flora of Italy was traditionally estimated to comprise about 5,500 vascular plant species. However, as of 2005, 6,759 species are recorded in the Data bank of Italian vascular flora. Italy has 1,371 endemic plant species and subspecies, which include Sicilian Fir, Barbaricina columbine, Sea marigold, Lavender cotton and Ucriana violet. Italy is a signatory to the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats and the Habitats Directive both affording protection to Italian fauna and flora.

Italy has many botanical gardens and historic gardens, some of which are known outside the country. The Italian garden is stylistically based on symmetry, axial geometry and on the principle of imposing order over nature. It influenced the history of gardening, especially French gardens and English gardens. The Italian garden was influenced by Roman gardens and Italian Renaissance gardens.

The Italian wolf is the national animal of Italy, while the national tree of the country is the strawberry tree. The reasons for this choice are related to the fact that the Italian wolf, which inhabits the Apennine Mountains and the Western Alps, features prominently in Latin and Italian cultures, such as in the legend of the founding of Rome, while the green leaves, white flowers and red berries of the strawberry tree, which is native to the Mediterranean region, recall the colours of the flag of Italy.

Climate

The climate of Italy is influenced by the large body of water of the Mediterranean Sea that surrounds Italy on every side except the north. These seas constitute a reservoir of heat and humidity for Italy. Within the southern temperate zone, they determine a Mediterranean climate with local differences due to the geomorphology of the territory, which tends to make its mitigating effects felt, especially in high pressure conditions.

Because of the length of the peninsula and the mostly mountainous hinterland, the climate of Italy is highly diverse. In most of the inland northern and central regions, the climate ranges from humid subtropical to humid continental and oceanic. The climate of the Po valley geographical region is mostly humid subtropical, with cool winters and hot summers. The coastal areas of Liguria, Tuscany and most of the South generally fit the Mediterranean climate stereotype (Köppen climate classification).

Conditions on the coast are different from those in the interior, particularly during winter months when the higher altitudes tend to be cold, wet, and often snowy. The coastal regions have mild winters and hot and generally dry summers; lowland valleys are hot in summer. Average winter temperatures vary from around 0 °C (32 °F) in the Alps to 12 °C (54 °F) in Sicily, so average summer temperatures range from 20 °C (68 °F) to over 25 °C (77 °F).

Winters can vary widely across the country with lingering cold, foggy and snowy periods in the north and milder, sunnier conditions in the south. Summers are hot across the country, except for at high altitude, particularly in the south. Northern and central areas can experience occasional strong thunderstorms from spring to autumn.

Politics

Italy has been a unitary parliamentary republic since 2 June 1946, when the monarchy was abolished by a constitutional referendum. The President of Italy (Presidente della Repubblica), currently Sergio Mattarella since 2015, is Italy's head of state. The President is elected for a single seven years mandate by the Parliament of Italy and some regional voters in joint session. Italy has a written democratic constitution, resulting from the work of a Constituent Assembly formed by the representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the Italian Civil War.

Government

Italy has a parliamentary government based on a mixed proportional and majoritarian voting system. The parliament is perfectly bicameral: the two houses, the Chamber of Deputies that meets in Palazzo Montecitorio, and the Senate of the Republic that meets in Palazzo Madama, have the same powers. The Prime Minister, officially President of the Council of Ministers (Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri), is Italy's head of government. The Prime Minister and the cabinet are appointed by the President of the Republic of Italy and must pass a vote of confidence in Parliament to come into office. To remain the Prime Minister has to pass also eventual further votes of confidence or no confidence in Parliament.

The prime minister is the President of the Council of Ministers – which holds effective executive power – and must receive a vote of approval from it to execute most political activities. The office is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems, but the head of the Italian government is not authorised to request the dissolution of the Parliament of Italy.

Another difference with similar offices is that the overall political responsibility for intelligence is vested in the President of the Council of Ministers. By virtue of that, the Prime Minister has exclusive power to coordinate intelligence policies, determine the financial resources and strengthen national cyber security; apply and protect State secrets; authorise agents to carry out operations, in Italy or abroad, in violation of the law.

A peculiarity of the Italian Parliament is the representation given to Italian citizens permanently living abroad: 8 Deputies and 4 Senators elected in four distinct overseas constituencies. In addition, the Italian Senate is characterised also by a small number of senators for life, appointed by the President "for outstanding patriotic merits in the social, scientific, artistic or literary field". Former Presidents of the Republic are ex officio life senators.

Italy's three major political parties are the Brothers of Italy, the Democratic Party and the Five Star Movement. During the 2022 general election, these three parties and their coalitions won 357 out of 400 seats available in the Chamber of Deputies and 187 out of 200 in the Senate. The centre-right coalition, which included Giorgia Meloni's Brothers of Italy, Matteo Salvini's League, Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia and Maurizio Lupi's Us Moderates, won a majority of the seats in parliament. The rest of the seats were taken by the centre-left coalition, which included Enrico Letta's Democratic Party, Angelo Bonelli's Greens and Left Alliance, Aosta Valley, Emma Bonino's More Europe & Luigi Di Maio's Civic Commitment, as well as by Giuseppe Conte's Five Star Movement, Carlo Calenda's Action - Italia Viva, Philipp Achammer and Stefan Premstaller's South Tyrolean People's Party, Cateno De Luca's South Calls North and Ricardo Antonio Merlo's Associative Movement of Italians Abroad.

Law and criminal justice

The law of Italy has a plurality of sources of production. These are arranged in a hierarchical scale, under which the rule of a lower source cannot conflict with the rule of an upper source (hierarchy of sources). The Constitution of 1948 is the main source. The judiciary of Italy is based on Roman law modified by the Napoleonic code and later statutes. The Supreme Court of Cassation is the highest court in Italy for both criminal and civil appeal cases. The Constitutional Court of Italy (Corte Costituzionale) rules on the conformity of laws with the constitution and is a post–World War II innovation.

Since their appearance in the middle of the 19th century, Italian organised crime and criminal organisations have infiltrated the social and economic life of many regions in Southern Italy, the most notorious of which being the Sicilian Mafia, which would later expand into some foreign countries including the United States. Mafia receipts may reach 9% of Italy's GDP.

A 2009 report identified 610 comuni which have a strong Mafia presence, where 13 million Italians live and 14.6% of the Italian GDP is produced. The Calabrian 'Ndrangheta, nowadays probably the most powerful crime syndicate of Italy, accounts alone for 3% of the country's GDP. However, at 0.013 per 1,000 people, Italy has only the 47th highest murder rate compared to 61 countries and the 43rd highest number of rapes per 1,000 people compared to 64 countries in the world. These are relatively low figures among developed countries.

The Italian law enforcement system is complex, with multiple police forces. The national policing agencies are the Polizia di Stato (State Police), the Arma dei Carabinieri, the Guardia di Finanza (Financial Guard), and the Polizia Penitenziaria (Prison Police), as well as the Guardia Costiera (coast guard police). Although policing in Italy is primarily provided on a national basis, there also exists Polizia Provinciale (provincial police) and Polizia Municipale (municipal police).

Italy is regarded as being behind other Western European nations with regards to LGBT rights. Additionally, Italy's law prohibiting torture is considered behind international standards.

Foreign relations

Italy is a founding member of the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU), and of NATO. Italy was admitted to the United Nations in 1955, and it is a member and a strong supporter of a wide number of international organisations, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization (GATT/WTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Council of Europe, and the Central European Initiative. Its recent or upcoming turns in the rotating presidency of international organisations include the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe in 2018, the G7 in 2017 and the EU Council from July to December 2014. Italy is also a recurrent non-permanent member of the UN Security Council, the most recently in 2017.

Italy strongly supports multilateral international politics, endorsing the United Nations and its international security activities. In 2013, Italy had 5,296 troops deployed abroad, engaged in 33 UN and NATO missions in 25 countries of the world. Italy deployed troops in support of UN peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Mozambique, and East Timor and provides support for NATO and UN operations in Bosnia, Kosovo and Albania. Italy deployed over 2,000 troops in Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) from February 2003.

Italy supported international efforts to reconstruct and stabilise Iraq, but it had withdrawn its military contingent of some 3,200 troops by 2006, maintaining only humanitarian operators and other civilian personnel. In August 2006 Italy deployed about 2,450 troops in Lebanon for the United Nations' peacekeeping mission UNIFIL. Italy is one of the largest financiers of the Palestinian National Authority, contributing €60 million in 2013 alone.

Military

The Italian Army, Navy, Air Force and Carabinieri collectively form the Italian Armed Forces, under the command of the High Council of Defence, presided over by the President of Italy, as established by article 87 of the Constitution of Italy. According to article 78, the Parliament has the authority to declare a state of war and vest the necessary powers in the Government.

Despite not being a branch of the armed forces, the Guardia di Finanza ("Financial Guard") has military status and is organized along military lines. Since 2005, military service is voluntary. In 2010, the Italian military had 293,202 personnel on active duty, of which 114,778 are Carabinieri. As part of NATO's nuclear sharing strategy Italy also hosts 90 United States B61 nuclear bombs, located in the Ghedi and Aviano air bases.

The Italian Army is the national ground defence force. Its best-known combat vehicles are the Dardo infantry fighting vehicle, the Centauro tank destroyer and the Ariete tank, and among its aircraft the Mangusta attack helicopter, in the last years deployed in EU, NATO and UN missions. It also has at its disposal many Leopard 1 and M113 armoured vehicles. It was formed in 1946 from what remained of the Regio Esercito ("Royal Army", which was established on the occasion of the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, 1861) after World War II, when Italy became a republic following a referendum.

The Italian Navy is a blue-water navy. In modern times the Italian Navy, being a member of the EU and NATO, has taken part in many coalition peacekeeping operations around the world. It was formed in 1946 from what remained of the Regia Marina ("Royal Navy", which was established on the occasion of the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, 1861) after World War II, when Italy became a republic following a referendum. The Italian Navy in 2014 operates 154 vessels in service, including minor auxiliary vessels.

The Italian Air Force in 2021 operates 219 combat jets. A transport capability is guaranteed by a fleet of 27 C-130Js and C-27J Spartan. The Italian Air Force was founded as an independent service arm on 28 March 1923 by King Victor Emmanuel III as the Regia Aeronautica ("Royal Air Force"). After World War II, when Italy became a republic following a referendum, the Regia Aeronautica was given its current name. The acrobatic display team is the Frecce Tricolori ("Tricolour Arrows").

An autonomous corps of the military, the Carabinieri are the gendarmerie and military police of Italy, policing the military and civilian population alongside Italy's other police forces. While the different branches of the Carabinieri report to separate ministries for each of their individual functions, the corps reports to the Ministry of Internal Affairs when maintaining public order and security.

Administrative divisions

Italy is constituted by 20 regions (regioni)—five of these regions having a special autonomous status that enables them to enact legislation on additional matters, 107 provinces (province) or metropolitan cities (città metropolitane), and 7,904 municipalities (comuni). This is a list of regions in Italy:

• Abruzzo
• Aosta Valley
• Apulia
• Basilicata
• Calabria
• Campania
• Emilia-Romagna
• Friuli Venezia Giulia
• Lazio
• Liguria
• Lombardy
• Marche
• Molise
• Piedmont
• Sardinia
• Sicily
• Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol
• Tuscany
• Umbria
• Veneto

Economy

Italy has a major advanced capitalist mixed economy, ranking as the third-largest in the eurozone and the eighth-largest in the world by nominal GDP. A founding member of the G7, the eurozone and the OECD, it is regarded as one of the world's most industrialised nations and a leading country in world trade and exports. It is a highly developed country, ranked 30th on the Human Development Index. It also performs well in life expectancy, healthcare and education. The country is well known for its creative and innovative business, a large and competitive agricultural sector (with the world's largest wine production), and for its influential and high-quality automobile, machinery, food, design and fashion industry.

Italy is the world's sixth-largest manufacturing country, characterised by a smaller number of global multinational corporations than other economies of comparable size and many dynamic small and medium-sized enterprises, notoriously clustered in several industrial districts, which are the backbone of the Italian industry. This has produced a manufacturing sector often focused on the export of niche market and luxury products, that if on one side is less capable to compete on the quantity, on the other side is more capable of facing the competition from China and other emerging Asian economies based on lower labour costs, with higher quality products. Italy was the world's tenth-largest exporter in 2019. Its closest trade ties are with the other countries of the European Union. Its largest export partners in 2019 were Germany (12%), France (11%), and the United States (10%).

The automotive industry is a significant part of the Italian manufacturing sector, with over 144,000 firms and almost 485,000 employed people in 2015, and a contribution of 8.5% to Italian GDP. Stellantis is currently the world's fifth-largest auto maker. The country boasts a wide range of acclaimed products, from compact city cars to luxury supercars such as Maserati, Pagani, Lamborghini, and Ferrari.

The Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena is the world's oldest or second oldest bank in continuous operation, depending on the definition, and the fourth-largest Italian commercial and retail bank. Italy has a strong cooperative sector, with the largest share of the population (4.5%) employed by a cooperative in the EU. The Val d'Agri area, Basilicata, hosts the largest onshore hydrocarbon field in Europe. Moderate natural gas reserves, mainly in the Po Valley and offshore Adriatic Sea, have been discovered in recent years and constitute the country's most important mineral resource. Italy is one of the world's leading producers of pumice, pozzolana, and feldspar. Another notable mineral resource is marble, especially the world-famous white Carrara marble from the Massa and Carrara quarries in Tuscany.

Italy is part of a monetary union, the eurozone, and of the European single market, which represents more than 500 million consumers. Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. Italy introduced the common European currency, the euro in 2002. It is a member of the eurozone which represents around 330 million citizens. Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank.

Italy was hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007–08, that exacerbated the country's structural problems. Effectively, after a strong GDP growth of 5–6% per year from the 1950s to the early 1970s, and a progressive slowdown in the 1980–90s, the country virtually stagnated in the 2000s. The political efforts to revive growth with massive government spending eventually produced a severe rise in public debt, that stood at over 131.8% of GDP in 2017, ranking second in the EU only after the Greek one. For all that, the largest chunk of Italian public debt is owned by national subjects, a major difference between Italy and Greece, and the level of household debt is much lower than the OECD average.

A gaping North–South divide is a major factor of socio-economic weakness. It can be noted by the huge difference in statistical income between the northern and southern regions and municipalities. The richest province, Alto Adige-South Tyrol, earns 152% of the national GDP per capita, while the poorest region, Calabria, 61%. The unemployment rate (11.1%) stands slightly above the eurozone average, but the disaggregated figure is 6.6% in the North and 19.2% in the South. The youth unemployment rate (31.7% in March 2018) is extremely high compared to EU standards.

Agriculture

According to the last national agricultural census, there were 1.6 million farms in 2010 (−32.4% since 2000) covering 12,700,000 ha or 31,382,383 acres (63% of which are located in Southern Italy). The vast majority (99%) are family-operated and small, averaging only 8 ha (20 acres) in size. Of the total surface area in agricultural use (forestry excluded), grain fields take up 31%, olive tree orchards 8.2%, vineyards 5.4%, citrus orchards 3.8%, sugar beets 1.7%, and horticulture 2.4%. The remainder is primarily dedicated to pastures (25.9%) and feed grains (11.6%).

Italy is the world's largest wine producer, and one of the leading in olive oil, fruits (apples, olives, grapes, oranges, lemons, pears, apricots, hazelnuts, peaches, cherries, plums, strawberries and kiwifruits), and vegetables (especially artichokes and tomatoes). The most famous Italian wines are probably the Tuscan Chianti and the Piedmontese Barolo. Other famous wines are Barbaresco, Barbera d'Asti, Brunello di Montalcino, Frascati, Montepulciano d'Abruzzo, Morellino di Scansano, and the sparkling wines Franciacorta and Prosecco.

Quality goods in which Italy specialises, particularly the already mentioned wines and regional cheeses, are often protected under the quality assurance labels DOC/DOP. This geographical indication certificate, which is attributed by the European Union, is considered important in order to avoid confusion with low-quality mass-produced ersatz products.

Transport

Italy was the first country in the world to build motorways, the so-called autostrade, reserved for fast traffic and for motor vehicles only. Regarding the national road network, in 2002 there were 668,721 km (415,524 mi) of serviceable roads in Italy, including 6,487 km (4,031 mi) of motorways, state-owned but privately operated by Atlantia. In 2005, about 34,667,000 passenger cars (590 cars per 1,000 people) and 4,015,000 goods vehicles circulated on the national road network.

The national railway network, state-owned and operated by Rete Ferroviaria Italiana (FSI), in 2008 totalled 16,529 km (10,271 mi) of which 11,727 km (7,287 mi) is electrified, and on which 4,802 locomotives and railcars run. The main public operator of high-speed trains is Trenitalia, part of FSI. Higher-speed trains are divided into three categories: Frecciarossa (Template:Lang-en) trains operate at a maximum speed of 300 km/h on dedicated high-speed tracks; Frecciargento (Template:Lang-en) trains operate at a maximum speed of 250 km/h on both high-speed and mainline tracks; and Frecciabianca (Template:Lang-en) trains operate on high-speed regional lines at a maximum speed of 200 km/h. Italy has 11 rail border crossings over the Alpine mountains with its neighbouring countries.

Italy is the fifth in Europe by the number of passengers by air transport, with about 148 million passengers or about 10% of the European total in 2011. In 2022 there were 45 civil airports in Italy, including the two hubs of Malpensa International Airport in Milan and Leonardo da Vinci International Airport in Rome. Since October 2021, Italy's flag carrier airline is ITA Airways, which took over the brand, the IATA ticketing code, and many assets belonging to the former flag carrier Alitalia, after its bankruptcy.

In 2004 there were 43 major seaports, including the seaport of Genoa, the country's largest and second-largest in the Mediterranean Sea. In 2005 Italy maintained a civilian air fleet of about 389,000 units and a merchant fleet of 581 ships. The national inland waterways network has a length of 2,400 km (1,491 mi) for commercial traffic in 2012.

Italy has been the final destination of the Silk Road for many centuries. In particular, the construction of the Suez Canal intensified sea trade with East Africa and Asia from the 19th century. Since the end of the Cold War and increasing European integration, the trade relations, which were often interrupted in the 20th century, have intensified again and the northern Italian ports such as the deep-water port of Trieste in the northernmost part of the Mediterranean with its extensive rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe are once again the destination of government subsidies and significant foreign investment.

Energy

In the last decade, Italy has become one of the world's largest producers of renewable energy, ranking as the second largest producer in the European Union and the ninth in the world. Wind power, hydroelectricity, and geothermal power are also significant sources of electricity in the country. Renewable sources account for 27.5% of all electricity produced in Italy, with hydro alone reaching 12.6%, followed by solar at 5.7%, wind at 4.1%, bioenergy at 3.5%, and geothermal at 1.6%. The rest of the national demand is covered by fossil fuels (38.2% natural gas, 13% coal, 8.4% oil) and by imports. Eni, with operations in 79 countries, is considered one of the seven "Supermajor" oil companies in the world, and one of the world's largest industrial companies.

Solar energy production alone accounted for almost 9% of the total electric production in the country in 2014, making Italy the country with the highest contribution from solar energy in the world. The Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station, completed in 2010, is the largest photovoltaic power station in Italy with 85 MW. Other examples of large PV plants in Italy are San Bellino (70.6 MW), Cellino san Marco (42.7 MW) and Sant' Alberto (34.6 MW). Italy was the first country in the world to exploit geothermal energy to produce electricity. Italy had managed four nuclear reactors until the 1980s. However, nuclear power in Italy has been abandoned following a 1987 referendum (in the wake of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in Soviet Ukraine), though Italy still imports nuclear energy from Italy-owned reactors in foreign territories.

Science and technology

Through the centuries, Italy has fostered the scientific community that produced many major discoveries in physics and other sciences. During the Renaissance Italian polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Michelangelo (1475–1564) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) made contributions in a variety of fields, including biology, architecture, and engineering. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), an astronomer, physicist, engineer, and polymath, played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. He is considered the "father" of observational astronomy, modern physics, the scientific method, and modern science.

Other astronomers such as Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625–1712) and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1835–1910) made discoveries about the Solar System. In mathematics, Joseph Louis Lagrange (born Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia, 1736–1813) was active before leaving Italy. Fibonacci (c. 1170 – c. 1250), and Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576) made fundamental advances in mathematics. Luca Pacioli established accounting to the world. Physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–1954), a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed the first nuclear reactor. He is considered the "architect of the nuclear age" and the "architect of the atomic bomb". He, Emilio G. Segrè (1905–1989) who discovered the elements technetium and astatine, and the antiproton), Bruno Rossi (1905–1993) a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy) and a number of Italian physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s by Fascist laws against Jews.

Other prominent physicists include: Amedeo Avogadro (most noted for his contributions to molecular theory, in particular, the Avogadro's law and the Avogadro constant), Evangelista Torricelli (inventor of barometer), Alessandro Volta (inventor of electric battery), Guglielmo Marconi (inventor of radio), Galileo Ferraris and Antonio Pacinotti, pioneers of the induction motor, Alessandro Cruto, pioneer of light bulb and Innocenzo Manzetti, eclectic pioneer of auto and robotics, Ettore Majorana (who discovered the Majorana fermions), Carlo Rubbia (1984 Nobel Prize in Physics for work leading to the discovery of the W and Z particles at CERN). Antonio Meucci is known for developing a voice-communication device which is often credited as the first telephone. Pier Giorgio Perotto in 1964 designed one of the first desktop programmable calculators, the Programma 101.

In biology, Francesco Redi has been the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies and he described 180 parasites in detail and Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy, Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory, Camillo Golgi, whose many achievements include the discovery of the Golgi complex, paved the way to the acceptance of the Neuron doctrine, Rita Levi-Montalcini discovered the nerve growth factor (awarded 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine). In chemistry, Giulio Natta received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for his work on high polymers. Giuseppe Occhialini received the Wolf Prize in Physics for the discovery of the pion or pi-meson decay in 1947. Ennio de Giorgi, a Wolf Prize in Mathematics recipient in 1990, solved Bernstein's problem about minimal surfaces and the 19th Hilbert problem on the regularity of solutions of Elliptic partial differential equations.

Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso (LNGS) is the largest underground research centre in the world. ELETTRA, Eurac Research, ESA Centre for Earth Observation, Institute for Scientific Interchange, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Centre for Maritime Research and Experimentation and the International Centre for Theoretical Physics conduct basic research. Trieste has the highest percentage of researchers in Europe in relation to the population. Italy was ranked 28th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022. There are numerous technology parks in Italy such as the Science and Technology Parks Kilometro Rosso (Bergamo), the AREA Science Park (Trieste), The VEGA-Venice Gateway for Science and Technology (Venezia), the Toscana Life Sciences (Siena), the Technology Park of Lodi Cluster (Lodi), and the Technology Park of Navacchio (Pisa), as well as science museums such as the Museo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci in Milan, the Città della Scienza in Naples and the Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence.

Within this great Italian History of Science and Technology, modern times tell a different and more technologically divergent story. The North–South divide is a significant factor that leads to a vast difference in income between the Northern and Southern regions, which brings up the topic of the Digital Divide in Italy. The long history of this divided peninsula, now a unified nation-state, details the complex problems of underdeveloped areas in the South. As expected, these problems of underdevelopment and poverty still linger today, also reflected in the concept of the digital divide between the North and South. The Global digital divide is broadly described as the technological differences between underdeveloped and developed countries. While this does not necessarily mean that people have no access to technology, it is made clear that this equates to differences in technology, such as the Internet and household electronics. Digital inequalities between Northern and Southern Italy exist and are still prevalent, especially when related to education.

Tourism

People have visited Italy for centuries, yet the first to visit the peninsula for touristic reasons were aristocrats during the Grand Tour, beginning in the 17th century, and flourishing in the 18th and the 19th century. This was a period in which European aristocrats, many of whom were British, visited parts of Europe, with Italy as a key destination. For Italy, this was in order to study ancient architecture, local culture and to admire the natural beauties.

Nowadays Italy is the fifth most visited country in international tourism, with a total of 52.3 million international arrivals in 2016. The total contribution of travel & tourism to GDP (including wider effects from investment, the supply chain and induced income impacts) was EUR162.7bn in 2014 (10.1% of GDP) and generated 1,082,000 jobs directly in 2014 (4.8% of total employment).

Factors of tourist interest in Italy are mainly culture, cuisine, history, fashion, architecture, art, religious sites and routes, wedding tourism, naturalistic beauties, nightlife, underwater sites and spas. Winter and summer tourism are present in many locations in the Alps and the Apennines, while seaside tourism is widespread in coastal locations on the Mediterranean Sea. Italy is the leading cruise tourism destination in the Mediterranean Sea. Small, historical and artistic Italian villages are promoted through the association I Borghi più belli d'Italia (literally "The Most Beautiful Villages of Italy").

The most visited regions of Italy, measured by nights spent in tourist accommodation establishments, are Veneto, Tuscany, Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna and Lazio. Rome is the 3rd most visited city in Europe and the 12th in the world, with 9.4 million arrivals in 2017 while Milan is the 27th worldwide with 6.8 million tourists. In addition, Venice and Florence are also among the world's top 100 destinations.

Italy is also the country with the highest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the world (58). Out of Italy's 58 heritage sites, 53 are cultural and 5 are natural. In Italy there is a broad variety of hotels, going from 1–5 stars. According to ISTAT, in 2017, there were 32,988 hotels with 1,133,452 rooms and 2,239,446 beds. As for non-hotel facilities (campsites, tourist villages, accommodations for rent, agritourism, etc.), in 2017 their number was 171,915 with 2,798,352 beds.

Demographics

At the beginning of 2020, Italy had 60,317,116 inhabitants. The resulting population density, at 202 inhabitants per square kilometre (520/sq mi), is higher than that of most Western European countries. However, the distribution of the population is widely uneven. The most densely populated areas are the Po Valley (that accounts for almost a half of the national population) and the metropolitan areas of Rome and Naples, while vast regions such as the Alps and Apennines highlands, the plateaus of Basilicata and the island of Sardinia, as well as much of Sicily, are sparsely populated.

The population of Italy almost doubled during the 20th century, but the pattern of growth was extremely uneven because of large-scale internal migration from the rural South to the industrial cities of the North, a phenomenon which happened as a consequence of the Italian economic miracle of the 1950–1960s. High fertility and birth rates persisted until the 1970s, after which they started to decline. The population rapidly aged; by 2010, one in five Italians was over 65 years old, and the country currently has the fifth oldest population in the world, with a median age of 46.5 years. However, in recent years Italy has experienced significant growth in birth rates. The total fertility rate has also climbed from an all-time low of 1.18 children per woman in 1995 to 1.41 in 2008, albeit still below the replacement rate of 2.1 and considerably below the high of 5.06 children born per woman in 1883. Nevertheless, the total fertility rate is expected to reach 1.6–1.8 in 2030.

From the late 19th century until the 1960s Italy was a country of mass emigration. Between 1898 and 1914, the peak years of Italian diaspora, approximately 750,000 Italians emigrated each year. The diaspora concerned more than 25 million Italians and it is considered the biggest mass migration of contemporary times. As a result, today more than 4.1 million Italian citizens are living abroad, while at least 60 million people of full or part Italian ancestry live outside of Italy, most notably in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela, the United States, Canada, Australia and France.

Largest cities

v t e Largest cities or towns in Italy ISTAT estimates for 31 December 2022
	Rank	Name	Region	Pop.	Rank	Name	Region	Pop.
Rome Milan	1	Rome	Lazio	2,748,109	11	Verona	Veneto	255,588	Naples Turin
	2	Milan	Lombardy	1,354,196	12	Venice	Veneto	250,369
	3	Naples	Campania	913,462	13	Messina	Sicily	218,786
	4	Turin	Piedmont	841,600	14	Padua	Veneto	206,496
	5	Palermo	Sicily	630,167	15	Trieste	Friuli-Venezia Giulia	198,417
	6	Genoa	Liguria	558,745	16	Parma	Emilia-Romagna	196,885
	7	Bologna	Emilia-Romagna	387,971	17	Brescia	Lombardy	196,567
	8	Florence	Tuscany	360,930	18	Prato	Tuscany	195,820
	9	Bari	Apulia	316,015	19	Taranto	Apulia	188,098
	10	Catania	Sicily	298,762	20	Modena	Emilia-Romagna	184,153

Immigration

In 2021, Italy had about 5.17 million foreign residents, making up 8.7% of the total population. The figures include more than half a million children born in Italy to foreign nationals (second generation immigrants) but exclude foreign nationals who have subsequently acquired Italian citizenship; in 2016, about 201,000 people became Italian citizens. The official figures also exclude illegal immigrants, who estimated to number at least 670,000 as of 2008.

Starting from the early 1980s, until then a linguistically and culturally homogeneous society, Italy begun to attract substantial flows of foreign immigrants. After the fall of the Berlin Wall and, more recently, the 2004 and 2007 enlargements of the European Union, large waves of migration originated from the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe (especially Romania, Albania, Ukraine and Poland). Another source of immigration is neighbouring North Africa (in particular, Morocco, Egypt and Tunisia), with soaring arrivals as a consequence of the Arab Spring. Furthermore, in recent years, growing migration fluxes from Asia-Pacific (notably China and the Philippines) and Latin America have been recorded.

Currently, about one million Romanian citizens (around 10% of them being ethnic Romani people) are officially registered as living in Italy, representing the largest migrant population, followed by Albanians and Moroccans with about 500,000 people each. The number of unregistered Romanians is difficult to estimate, but the Balkan Investigative Reporting Network suggested in 2007 that there might have been half a million or more.

As of 2010, the foreign born population of Italy was from the following regions: Europe (54%), Africa (22%), Asia (16%), the Americas (8%) and Oceania (0.06%). The distribution of foreign population is geographically varied in Italy: in 2020, 61.2% of foreign citizens lived in Northern Italy (in particular 36.1% in the North West and 25.1% in the North East), 24.2% in the centre, 10.8% in the South and 3.9% in the Islands.

Languages

Italy's official language is Italian, as stated by the framework law no. 482/1999 and Trentino Alto-Adige's special Statute, which is adopted with a constitutional law. Around the world there are an estimated 64 million native Italian speakers and another 21 million who use it as a second language. Italian is often natively spoken in a regional variety, not to be confused with Italy's regional and minority languages; however, the establishment of a national education system led to a decrease in variation in the languages spoken across the country during the 20th century. Standardisation was further expanded in the 1950s and 1960s due to economic growth and the rise of mass media and television (the state broadcaster RAI helped set a standard Italian).

Twelve "historical minority languages" (minoranze linguistiche storiche) are formally recognised: Albanian, Catalan, German, Greek, Slovene, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin, Occitan and Sardinian. Four of these also enjoy a co-official status in their respective region: French in the Aosta Valley; German in South Tyrol, and Ladin as well in some parts of the same province and in parts of the neighbouring Trentino; and Slovene in the provinces of Trieste, Gorizia and Udine. A number of other Ethnologue, ISO and UNESCO languages are not recognised by Italian law. Like France, Italy has signed the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, but has not ratified it.

Because of recent immigration, Italy has sizeable populations whose native language is not Italian, nor a regional language. According to the Italian National Institute of Statistics, Romanian is the most common mother tongue among foreign residents in Italy: almost 800,000 people speak Romanian as their first language (21.9% of the foreign residents aged 6 and over). Other prevalent mother tongues are Arabic (spoken by over 475,000 people; 13.1% of foreign residents), Albanian (380,000 people) and Spanish (255,000 people).

Religion

Religiosity in Italy is rapidly declining, although it has been historically characterized by the dominance of Catholicism since the Great Schism. According to a 2023 Ipsos survey, 61% of the country's residents are Catholic, 28% are irreligious, 4% are Protestants, 3% other Christians, 2% prefer not to say, 1% are Muslims, are 1% adhere to other religions. Most Catholics are nominal; the Associated Press describes Italian Catholicism as "a faith that’s... nominally embraced but rarely lived." Italy has the world's fifth-largest Catholic population, the largest in Europe. In 2011, minority Christian faiths in Italy included an estimated 1.5 million Orthodox Christians. Protestantism has been growing in recent years. One of the longest-established minority religious faiths in Italy is Judaism. Italy has for centuries welcomed Jews expelled from other countries, notably Spain. However, about 20% of Italian Jews were killed during the Holocaust. This, together with the emigration which preceded and followed World War II, has left only around 28,400 Jews in Italy.

Religion in Italy according to the Ipsos survey, 2023 (approximately 1000 participants)

The Holy See, the episcopal jurisdiction of Rome, contains the central government of the Catholic Church. It is recognised by other subjects of international law as a sovereign entity, headed by the Pope, who is also the Bishop of Rome, with which diplomatic relations can be maintained. Often incorrectly referred to as "the Vatican", the Holy See is not the same entity as the Vatican City State because the Holy See is the jurisdiction and administrative entity of the Pope. The Vatican City came into existence only in 1929. There are also 120,000 Hindus, 70,000 Sikhs and 22 gurdwaras across the country.

Since 1985, Catholicism is no longer officially the state religion. However, the Italian state devolves shares of income tax to recognised religious communities, under a regime known as Eight per thousand. Donations are allowed to Christian, Jewish, Buddhist and Hindu communities; however, Islam remains excluded, since no Muslim communities have yet signed a concordat with the Italian state. Taxpayers who do not wish to fund a religion contribute their share to the state welfare system.

Education

Education in Italy is free and mandatory from ages six to sixteen, and consists of five stages: kindergarten (scuola dell'infanzia), primary school (scuola primaria), lower secondary school (scuola secondaria di primo grado), upper secondary school (scuola secondaria di secondo grado) and university (università).

Primary education lasts eight years. Students are given a basic education in Italian, English, mathematics, natural sciences, history, geography, social studies, physical education and visual and musical arts. Secondary education lasts for five years and includes three traditional types of schools focused on different academic levels: the liceo prepares students for university studies with a classical or scientific curriculum, while the istituto tecnico and the Istituto professionale prepare pupils for vocational education.

In 2018, the Italian secondary education was evaluated as below the OECD average. Italy scored below the OECD average in reading and science, and near OECD average in mathematics. Mean performance in Italy declined in reading and science, and remained stable in mathematics. Trento and Bolzano scored at an above the national average in reading. Compared to school children in other OECD countries, children in Italy missed out on a greater amount of learning due to absences and indiscipline in classrooms. A wide gap exists between northern schools, which perform near average, and schools in the South, that had much poorer results.

Tertiary education in Italy is divided between public universities, private universities and the prestigious and selective superior graduate schools, such as the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa. 33 Italian universities were ranked among the world's top 500 in 2019, the third-largest number in Europe after the United Kingdom and Germany. Bologna University, founded in 1088, is the oldest university in continuous operation, as well as one of the leading academic institutions in Italy and Europe. The Bocconi University, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, LUISS, Polytechnic University of Turin, Polytechnic University of Milan, Sapienza University of Rome, and University of Milan are also ranked among the best in the world.

Health

Life expectancy in the country is 80 for males and 85 for females, placing the country 5th in the world. In comparison to other Western countries, Italy has a relatively low rate of adult obesity (below 10%), as there are several health benefits of the Mediterranean diet. The proportion of daily smokers was 22% in 2012, down from 24.4% in 2000 but still slightly above the OECD average. Smoking in public places including bars, restaurants, night clubs and offices has been restricted to specially ventilated rooms since 2005. In 2013, UNESCO added the Mediterranean diet to the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of Italy (promoter), Morocco, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Cyprus and Croatia.

The Italian state runs a universal public healthcare system since 1978. However, healthcare is provided to all citizens and residents by a mixed public-private system. The public part is the Servizio Sanitario Nazionale, which is organised under the Ministry of Health and administered on a devolved regional basis. Healthcare spending accounted for 9.7% of GDP in 2020. Italy's healthcare system is consistently ranked among the best in the world. In 2018 Italy's healthcare is ranked 20th in Europe in the Euro Health Consumer Index.

Culture

Italy is considered one of the birthplaces of western civilization and a cultural superpower. Divided by politics and geography for centuries until its eventual unification in 1861, Italy's culture has been shaped by a multitude of regional customs and local centres of power and patronage. Italy has had a central role in Western culture for centuries and is still recognised for its cultural traditions and artists. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, a number of courts competed to attract architects, artists and scholars, thus producing a legacy of monuments, paintings, music and literature. Despite the political and social isolation of these courts, Italy has made a substantial contribution to the cultural and historical heritage of Europe.

Architecture

Italy is known for its considerable architectural achievements, such as the construction of arches, domes and similar structures during ancient Rome, the founding of the Renaissance architectural movement in the late-14th to 16th centuries, and being the homeland of Palladianism, a style of construction which inspired movements such as that of Neoclassical architecture, and influenced the designs which noblemen built their country houses all over the world, notably in the UK, Australia and the US during the late 17th to early 20th centuries.

Along with pre-historic architecture, the first people in Italy to truly begin a sequence of designs were the Greeks and the Etruscans, progressing to classical Roman, then to the revival of the classical Roman era during the Renaissance and evolving into the Baroque era. The Christian concept of a Basilica, a style of church architecture that came to dominate the early Middle Ages, was invented in Rome. They were known for being long, rectangular buildings, which were built in an almost ancient Roman style, often rich in mosaics and decorations. The early Christians' art and architecture were also widely inspired by that of the pagan Romans; statues, mosaics and paintings decorated all their churches.

The Romanesque movement, which went from approximately 800 AD to 1100 AD, was one of the most fruitful and creative periods in Italian architecture, when several masterpieces, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa in the Piazza dei Miracoli, and the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan were built. It was known for its usage of Roman arches, stained glass windows, and also its curved columns which commonly featured in cloisters. The main innovation of Italian Romanesque architecture was the vault, which had never been seen before in the history of Western architecture.

A flowering of Italian architecture took place during the Renaissance. Filippo Brunelleschi contributed to architectural design with his dome for the Cathedral of Florence, a feat of engineering that had not been accomplished since antiquity. A popular achievement of Italian Renaissance architecture was St. Peter's Basilica, originally designed by Donato Bramante in the early 16th century. Also, Andrea Palladio influenced architects throughout Western Europe with the villas and palaces he designed in the middle and late 16th century; the city of Vicenza, with its twenty-three buildings designed by Palladio, and twenty-four Palladian Villas of the Veneto are listed by UNESCO as part of a World Heritage Site named City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto.

The Baroque period produced several outstanding Italian architects in the 17th century, especially those known for their churches. The most original work of all late Baroque and Rococo architecture is the Palazzina di caccia di Stupinigi, dating back to the 18th century. Luigi Vanvitelli began in 1752 the construction of the Royal Palace of Caserta. In this large complex, the grandiose Baroque-style interiors and gardens are opposed to a more sober building envelope. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries Italy was affected by the Neoclassical architectural movement. Villas, palaces, gardens, interiors and art began to be based on Roman and Greek themes.

During the Fascist period, the so-called "Novecento movement" flourished, based on the rediscovery of imperial Rome, with figures such as Gio Ponti and Giovanni Muzio. Marcello Piacentini, responsible for the urban transformations of several cities in Italy and remembered for the disputed Via della Conciliazione in Rome, devised a form of simplified Neoclassicism.

Visual art

The history of Italian visual arts is significant to the history of Western painting. Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting. Roman painting does have its own unique characteristics. The only surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in Campania, in Southern Italy. Such paintings can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods and may contain the first examples of trompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.

The Italian Renaissance is said by many to be the golden age of painting; roughly spanning the 14th through the mid-17th centuries with a significant influence also out of the borders of modern Italy. In Italy artists like Paolo Uccello, Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Andrea Mantegna, Filippo Lippi, Giorgione, Tintoretto, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, and Titian took painting to a higher level through the use of perspective, the study of human anatomy and proportion, and through their development of refined drawing and painting techniques. Michelangelo was active as a sculptor from about 1500 to 1520; his works include his David, Pietà, Moses. Other Renaissance sculptors include Lorenzo Ghiberti, Luca Della Robbia, Donatello, Filippo Brunelleschi and Andrea del Verrocchio.

In the 15th and 16th centuries, the High Renaissance gave rise to a stylised art known as Mannerism. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterised art at the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The unperturbed faces and gestures of Piero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of Pontormo and the emotional intensity of El Greco.

In the 17th century, among the greatest painters of Italian Baroque are Caravaggio, Annibale Carracci, Artemisia Gentileschi, Mattia Preti, Carlo Saraceni and Bartolomeo Manfredi. Subsequently, in the 18th century, Italian Rococo was mainly inspired by French Rococo, since France was the founding nation of that particular style, with artists such as Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and Canaletto. Italian Neoclassical sculpture focused, with Antonio Canova's nudes, on the idealist aspect of the movement.

In the 19th century, major Italian Romantic painters were Francesco Hayez, Giuseppe Bezzuoli and Francesco Podesti. Impressionism was brought from France to Italy by the Macchiaioli, led by Giovanni Fattori, and Giovanni Boldini; Realism by Gioacchino Toma and Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo. In the 20th century, with Futurism, primarily through the works of Umberto Boccioni and Giacomo Balla, Italy rose again as a seminal country for artistic evolution in painting and sculpture. Futurism was succeeded by the metaphysical paintings of Giorgio de Chirico, who exerted a strong influence on the Surrealists and generations of artists to follow like Bruno Caruso and Renato Guttuso.

Literature

Formal Latin literature began in 240 BC, when the first stage play was performed in Rome. Latin literature was, and still is, highly influential in the world, with numerous writers, poets, philosophers, and historians, such as Pliny the Elder, Pliny the Younger, Virgil, Horace, Propertius, Ovid and Livy. The Romans were also famous for their oral tradition, poetry, drama and epigrams. In early years of the 13th century, Francis of Assisi was considered the first Italian poet by literary critics, with his religious song Canticle of the Sun.

Another Italian voice originated in Sicily. At the court of Emperor Frederick II, who ruled the Sicilian kingdom during the first half of the 13th century, lyrics modelled on Provençal forms and themes were written in a refined version of the local vernacular. One of these poets was the notary Giacomo da Lentini, inventor of the sonnet form, though the most famous early sonneteer was Petrarch.

Guido Guinizelli is considered the founder of the Dolce Stil Novo, a school that added a philosophical dimension to traditional love poetry. This new understanding of love, expressed in a smooth, pure style, influenced Guido Cavalcanti and the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri, who established the basis of the modern Italian language; his greatest work, the Divine Comedy, is considered among the finest works of world literature; furthermore, the poet invented the difficult terza rima. Two major writers of the 14th century, Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio, sought out and imitated the works of antiquity and cultivated their own artistic personalities. Petrarch achieved fame through his collection of poems, Il Canzoniere. Petrarch's love poetry served as a model for centuries. Equally influential was Boccaccio's The Decameron, one of the most popular collections of short stories ever written.

Italian Renaissance authors produced works including Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, an essay on political science and modern philosophy in which the "effectual truth" is taken to be more important than any abstract ideal; Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, continuation of Matteo Maria Boiardo's unfinished romance Orlando Innamorato; and Baldassare Castiglione's dialogue The Book of the Courtier which describes the ideal of the perfect court gentleman and of spiritual beauty. The lyric poet Torquato Tasso in Jerusalem Delivered wrote a Christian epic in ottava rima, with attention to the Aristotelian canons of unity.

Giovanni Francesco Straparola and Giambattista Basile, who have written The Facetious Nights of Straparola (1550–1555) and the Pentamerone (1634) respectively, printed some of the first known versions of fairy tales in Europe. In the early 17th century, some literary masterpieces were created, such as Giambattista Marino's long mythological poem, L'Adone. The Baroque period also produced the clear scientific prose of Galileo as well as Tommaso Campanella's The City of the Sun, a description of a perfect society ruled by a philosopher-priest. At the end of the 17th century, the Arcadians began a movement to restore simplicity and classical restraint to poetry, as in Metastasio's heroic melodramas. In the 18th century, playwright Carlo Goldoni created full-written plays, many portraying the middle class of his day.

Romanticism coincided with some ideas of the Risorgimento, the patriotic movement that brought Italy political unity and freedom from foreign domination. Italian writers embraced Romanticism in the early 19th century. The time of Italy's rebirth was heralded by the poets Vittorio Alfieri, Ugo Foscolo, and Giacomo Leopardi. The works by Alessandro Manzoni, the leading Italian Romantic, are a symbol of the Italian unification for their patriotic message and because of his efforts in the development of the modern, unified Italian language; his novel The Betrothed was the first Italian historical novel to glorify Christian values of justice and Providence, and it is generally ranked among the masterpieces of world literature.

In the late 19th century, a realistic literary movement called Verismo played a major role in Italian literature; Giovanni Verga and Luigi Capuana were its main exponents. In the same period, Emilio Salgari, writer of action-adventure swashbucklers and a pioneer of science fiction, published his Sandokan series. In 1883, Carlo Collodi also published the novel The Adventures of Pinocchio, the most celebrated children's classic by an Italian author and one of the most translated non-religious books in the world. A movement called Futurism influenced Italian literature in the early 20th century. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti wrote Manifesto of Futurism, called for the use of language and metaphors that glorified the speed, dynamism, and violence of the machine age.

Modern literary figures and Nobel laureates are Gabriele D'Annunzio from 1889 to 1910, nationalist poet Giosuè Carducci in 1906, realist writer Grazia Deledda in 1926, modern theatre author Luigi Pirandello in 1936, short stories writer Italo Calvino in 1960, poets Salvatore Quasimodo in 1959 and Eugenio Montale in 1975, Umberto Eco in 1980, and satirist and theatre author Dario Fo in 1997.

Philosophy

Over the ages, Italian philosophy and literature had a vast influence on Western philosophy, beginning with the Greeks and Romans, and going onto Renaissance humanism, the Age of Enlightenment and modern philosophy. Philosophy was brought to Italy by Pythagoras, founder of the Italian school of philosophy in Crotone, Magna Graecia. Major Italian philosophers of the Greek period include Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, Empedocles and Gorgias. Roman philosophers include Cicero, Lucretius, Seneca the Younger, Musonius Rufus, Plutarch, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, Clement of Alexandria, Sextus Empiricus, Alexander of Aphrodisias, Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, Augustine of Hippo, Philoponus of Alexandria and Boethius.

Italian Medieval philosophy was mainly Christian, and included philosophers and theologians such as Thomas Aquinas, the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism, who reintroduced Aristotelian philosophy to Christianity. Notable Renaissance philosophers include: Giordano Bruno, one of the major scientific figures of the western world; Marsilio Ficino, one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the period; and Niccolò Machiavelli, one of the main founders of modern political science. Machiavelli's most famous work was The Prince, whose contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political realism and political idealism. Italy was also affected by the Enlightenment, a movement which was a consequence of the Renaissance. University cities such as Padua, Bologna and Naples remained centres of scholarship and the intellect, with several philosophers such as Giambattista Vico (widely regarded as being the founder of modern Italian philosophy) and Antonio Genovesi. Cesare Beccaria was a significant Enlightenment figure and is now considered one of the fathers of classical criminal theory as well as modern penology. Beccaria is famous for his On Crimes and Punishments (1764), a treatise that served as one of the earliest prominent condemnations of torture and the death penalty and thus a landmark work in anti-death penalty philosophy.

Italy also had a renowned philosophical movement in the 1800s, with Idealism, Sensism and Empiricism. The main Sensist Italian philosophers were Melchiorre Gioja and Gian Domenico Romagnosi. Criticism of the Sensist movement came from other philosophers such as Pasquale Galluppi (1770–1846), who affirmed that a priori relationships were synthetic. Antonio Rosmini, instead, was the founder of Italian idealism. During the late 19th and 20th centuries, there were also several other movements which gained some form of popularity in Italy, such as Ontologism (whose main philosopher was Vincenzo Gioberti), anarchism, communism, socialism, futurism, fascism and Christian democracy. Giovanni Gentile and Benedetto Croce were two of the most significant 20th-century Idealist philosophers. Anarcho-communism first fully formed into its modern strain within the Italian section of the First International. Antonio Gramsci remains a relevant philosopher within Marxist and communist theory, credited with creating the theory of cultural hegemony. Italian philosophers were also influential in the development of the non-Marxist liberal socialism philosophy, including Carlo Rosselli, Norberto Bobbio, Piero Gobetti and Aldo Capitini. In the 1960s, many Italian left-wing activists adopted the anti-authoritarian pro-working class leftist theories that would become known as autonomism and operaismo.

Early Italian feminists include Sibilla Aleramo, Alaide Gualberta Beccari, and Anna Maria Mozzoni, though proto-feminist philosophies had previously been touched upon by earlier Italian writers such as Christine de Pizan, Moderata Fonte, and Lucrezia Marinella. Italian physician and educator Maria Montessori is credited with the creation of the philosophy of education that bears her name, an educational philosophy now practised throughout the world. Giuseppe Peano was one of the founders of analytic philosophy and the contemporary philosophy of mathematics. Recent analytic philosophers include Carlo Penco, Gloria Origgi, Pieranna Garavaso and Luciano Floridi.

Theatre

Italian theatre originates from the Middle Ages, with its background dating back to the times of the ancient Greek colonies of Magna Graecia, in Southern Italy, the theatre of the Italic peoples and the theatre of ancient Rome. It can therefore be assumed that there were two main lines of which the ancient Italian theatre developed in the Middle Ages. The first, consisting of the dramatization of Catholic liturgies and of which more documentation is retained, and the second, formed by pagan forms of spectacle such as the staging for city festivals, the court preparations of the jesters and the songs of the troubadours. The Renaissance theatre marked the beginning of the modern theatre due to the rediscovery and study of the classics, the ancient theatrical texts were recovered and translated, which were soon staged at the court and in the curtensi halls, and then moved to real theatre. In this way the idea of theatre came close to that of today: a performance in a designated place in which the public participates. In the late 15th century two cities were important centres for the rediscovery and renewal of theatrical art: Ferrara and Rome. The first, vital centre of art in the second half of the fifteenth century, saw the staging of some of the most famous Latin works by Plautus, rigorously translated into Italian.

During the 16th century and on into the 18th century, Commedia dell'arte was a form of improvisational theatre, and it is still performed today. Travelling troupes of players would set up an outdoor stage and provide amusement in the form of juggling, acrobatics and, more typically, humorous plays based on a repertoire of established characters with a rough storyline, called canovaccio. Plays did not originate from written drama but from scenarios called lazzi, which were loose frameworks that provided the situations, complications, and outcome of the action, around which the actors would improvise. The characters of the commedia usually represent fixed social types and stock characters, each of which has a distinct costume, such as foolish old men, devious servants, or military officers full of false bravado. The main categories of these characters include servants, old men, lovers, and captains.

The first recorded Commedia dell'arte performances came from Rome as early as 1551, and was performed outdoors in temporary venues by professional actors who were costumed and masked, as opposed to commedia erudita, which were written comedies, presented indoors by untrained and unmasked actors. By the mid-16th century, specific troupes of commedia performers began to coalesce, and by 1568 the Gelosi became a distinct company. Commedia often performed inside in court theatres or halls, and also in some fixed theatres such as Teatro Baldrucca in Florence. Flaminio Scala, who had been a minor performer in the Gelosi published the scenarios of the Commedia dell'arte around the start of the 17th century, really in an effort to legitimise the form—and ensure its legacy. These scenari are highly structured and built around the symmetry of the various types in duet: two zanni, vecchi, inamorate and inamorati, among others.

In Commedia dell'arte, female roles were played by women, documented as early as the 1560s, making them the first known professional actresses in Europe since antiquity. Lucrezia Di Siena, whose name is on a contract of actors from 10 October 1564, has been referred to as the first Italian actress known by name, with Vincenza Armani and Barbara Flaminia as the first primadonnas and the first well-documented actresses in Europe.

The Ballet dance genre also originated in Italy. It began during the Italian Renaissance court as an outgrowth of court pageantry, where aristocratic weddings were lavish celebrations. Court musicians and dancers collaborated to provide elaborate entertainment for them. At first, ballets were woven into the midst of an opera to allow the audience a moment of relief from the dramatic intensity. By the mid-seventeenth century, Italian ballets in their entirety were performed in between the acts of an opera. Over time, Italian ballets became part of theatrical life: ballet companies in Italy's major opera houses employed an average of four to twelve dancers; in 1815 many companies employed anywhere from eighty to one hundred dancers.

The Teatro di San Carlo in Naples is the oldest continuously active venue for public opera in the world, opening in 1737, decades before both Milan's La Scala and Venice's La Fenice theatres.

Music

From folk music to classical, music is an intrinsic part of Italian culture. Instruments associated with classical music, including the piano and violin, were invented in Italy, and many of the prevailing classical music forms, such as the symphony, concerto, and sonata, can trace their roots back to innovations of 16th- and 17th-century Italian music.

Italy's most famous composers include the Renaissance composers Palestrina, Monteverdi and Gesualdo, the Baroque composers Scarlatti, Corelli and Vivaldi, the Classical composers Paisiello, Paganini and Rossini, and the Romantic composers Verdi and Puccini. Modern Italian composers such as Berio and Nono proved significant in the development of experimental and electronic music. While the classical music tradition still holds strong in Italy, as evidenced by the fame of its innumerable opera houses, such as La Scala of Milan and San Carlo of Naples (the oldest continuously active venue for public opera in the world), and performers such as the pianist Maurizio Pollini and tenor Luciano Pavarotti, Italians have been no less appreciative of their thriving contemporary music scene.

Italy is widely known for being the birthplace of opera. Italian opera was believed to have been founded in the early 17th century, in cities such as Mantua and Venice. Later, works and pieces composed by native Italian composers of the 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi and Puccini, are among the most famous operas ever written and today are performed in opera houses across the world. La Scala opera house in Milan is also renowned as one of the best in the world. Famous Italian opera singers include Enrico Caruso and Alessandro Bonci.

Introduced in the early 1920s, jazz took a particularly strong foothold in Italy, and remained popular despite the xenophobic cultural policies of the Fascist regime. Today, the most notable centres of jazz music in Italy include Milan, Rome, and Sicily. Later, Italy was at the forefront of the progressive rock and pop movement of the 1970s, with bands like PFM, Banco del Mutuo Soccorso, Le Orme, Goblin, and Pooh. The same period saw diversification in the cinema of Italy, and Cinecittà films included complex scores by composers including Ennio Morricone, Armando Trovaioli, Piero Piccioni and Piero Umiliani. In the early 1980s, the first star to emerge from the Italian hip hop scene was singer Jovanotti. Italian metal bands include Rhapsody of Fire, Lacuna Coil, Elvenking, Forgotten Tomb, and Fleshgod Apocalypse.

Italy contributed to the development of disco and electronic music, with Italo disco, known for its futuristic sound and prominent use of synthesisers and drum machines, being one of the earliest electronic dance genres, as well as European forms of disco aside from Euro disco (which later went on to influence several genres such as Eurodance and Nu-disco).

Producers such as Giorgio Moroder, who won three Academy Awards and four Golden Globes for his music, were highly influential in the development of electronic dance music. Today, Italian pop music is represented annually with the Sanremo Music Festival, which served as inspiration for the Eurovision song contest, and the Festival of Two Worlds in Spoleto. Singers such as Mina, Andrea Bocelli, Grammy winner Laura Pausini, Zucchero, Eros Ramazzotti, Elisa, Tiziano Ferro and Mahmood have attained international acclaim.

Gigliola Cinquetti, Toto Cutugno, and Måneskin won the Eurovision Song Contest, in 1964, 1990, and 2021 respectively.

Cinema

The history of Italian cinema began a few months after the Lumière brothers began motion picture exhibitions. The first Italian director is considered to be Vittorio Calcina, a collaborator of the Lumière Brothers, who filmed Pope Leo XIII in 1896. In the 1910s the Italian film industry developed rapidly. In 1912, the year of the greatest expansion, 569 films were produced in Turin, 420 in Rome and 120 in Milan. Cabiria, a 1914 Italian epic film directed by Giovanni Pastrone, is considered the most famous Italian silent film. It was also the first film in history to be shown in the White House. The oldest European avant-garde cinema movement, Italian futurism, took place in the late 1910s.

After a period of decline in the 1920s, the Italian film industry was revitalized in the 1930s with the arrival of sound film. A popular Italian genre during this period, the Telefoni Bianchi, consisted of comedies with glamorous backgrounds. Calligrafismo was instead in a sharp contrast to Telefoni Bianchi-American style comedies and is rather artistic, highly formalistic, expressive in complexity and deals mainly with contemporary literary material. Cinema was later used by Benito Mussolini, who founded Rome's renowned Cinecittà studio also for the production of Fascist propaganda until World War II.

After the war, Italian film was widely recognised and exported until an artistic decline around the 1980s. Notable Italian film directors from this period include Vittorio De Sica, Federico Fellini, Sergio Leone, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Luchino Visconti, Michelangelo Antonioni, Dussio Tessari and Roberto Rossellini; some of these are recognised among the greatest and most influential filmmakers of all time. Movies include world cinema treasures such as Bicycle Thieves, La dolce vita, 8½, The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, and Once Upon a Time in the West. The mid-1940s to the early 1950s was the heyday of neorealist films, reflecting the poor condition of post-war Italy.

As the country grew wealthier in the 1950s, a form of neorealism known as pink neorealism succeeded, and starting from the 1950s through the Commedia all'italiana genre, and other film genres, such as sword-and-sandal followed as Spaghetti Westerns, were popular in the 1960s and 1970s. Actresses such as Sophia Loren, Giulietta Masina and Gina Lollobrigida achieved international stardom during this period. Erotic Italian thrillers, or giallos, produced by directors such as Mario Bava and Dario Argento in the 1970s, also influenced the horror genre worldwide. In recent years, the Italian scene has received only occasional international attention, with movies like Cinema Paradiso written and directed by Giuseppe Tornatore, Mediterraneo directed by Gabriele Salvatores, Life Is Beautiful directed by Roberto Benigni, Il Postino: The Postman with Massimo Troisi and The Great Beauty directed by Paolo Sorrentino.

The aforementioned Cinecittà studio is today the largest film and television production facility in Europe, where many international box office hits were filmed. In the 1950s, the number of international productions being made there led to Rome's being dubbed "Hollywood on the Tiber". More than 3,000 productions have been made on its lot, of which 90 received an Academy Award nomination and 47 of these won it, from some cinema classics to recent rewarded features (such as Roman Holiday, Ben-Hur, Cleopatra, Romeo and Juliet, The English Patient, The Passion of the Christ, and Gangs of New York).

Italy is the most awarded country at the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film, with 14 awards won, 3 Special Awards and 28 nominations. As of 2016, Italian films have also won 12 Palmes d'Or, 11 Golden Lions and 7 Golden Bears. The list of the 100 Italian films to be saved was created with the aim to report "100 films that have changed the collective memory of the country between 1942 and 1978".

Sport

The most popular sport in Italy is football. Italy's national football team is one of the world's most successful teams with four FIFA World Cup victories (1934, 1938, 1982 and 2006). Italian clubs have won 48 major European trophies, making Italy the second most successful country in European football. Italy's top-flight club football league is named Serie A and is followed by millions of fans around the world.

Other popular team sports in Italy include basketball, volleyball and rugby. Italy's male and female national volleyball teams are often featured among the world's best. The Italian national basketball team's best results were gold at Eurobasket 1983 and EuroBasket 1999, as well as silver at the Olympics in 2004. Lega Basket Serie A is widely considered one of the most competitive in Europe. Italy's rugby national team competes in the Six Nations Championship, and is a regular at the Rugby World Cup. The men's volleyball team won three consecutive World Championships (in 1990, 1994, and 1998) and earned the Olympic silver medal in 1996, 2004, and 2016.

Italy has a long and successful tradition in individual sports as well. Bicycle racing is a familiar sport in the country. Italians have won the UCI World Championships more than any other country, except Belgium. The Giro d'Italia is a cycling race held every May and constitutes one of the three Grand Tours. Alpine skiing is also a widespread sport in Italy, and the country is a popular international skiing destination, known for its ski resorts. Italian skiers achieved good results in Winter Olympic Games, Alpine Ski World Cup, and tennis has a significant following in Italy, ranking as the fourth most practised sport in the country. The Rome Masters, founded in 1930, is one of the most prestigious tennis tournaments in the world. Italian professional tennis players won the Davis Cup in 1976 and the Fed Cup in 2006, 2009, 2010 and 2013.

Motorsports are also extremely popular in Italy. Italy has won, by far, the most MotoGP World Championships. Italian Scuderia Ferrari is the oldest surviving team in Grand Prix racing, having competed since 1948, and statistically the most successful Formula One team in history with a record of 232 wins. The Italian Grand Prix of Formula 1 is the fifth oldest surviving Grand Prix, having been held since 1921. It is also one of the two Grand Prix present in every championship since the first one in 1950. Every Formula 1 Grand Prix (except for the 1980) has been held at Autodromo Nazionale Monza. Formula 1 was also held at Imola (1980–2006, 2020) and Mugello (2020). Other successful Italian car manufacturers in motorsports are Alfa Romeo, Lancia, Maserati and Fiat.

Historically, Italy has been successful in the Olympic Games, taking part from the first Olympiad and in 47 Games out of 48, not having officially participated in the 1904 Summer Olympics. Italian sportsmen have won 522 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, and another 106 at the Winter Olympic Games, for a combined total of 628 medals with 235 golds, which makes them the fifth most successful nation in Olympic history for total medals. The country hosted two Winter Olympics and will host a third (in 1956, 2006, and 2026), and one Summer games (in 1960).

Fashion and design

Italian fashion has a long tradition. Milan, Florence and Rome are Italy's main fashion capitals. According to Top Global Fashion Capital Rankings 2013 by Global Language Monitor, Rome ranked sixth worldwide while Milan was twelfth. Previously, in 2009, Milan was declared the "fashion capital of the world" by Global Language Monitor itself. Major Italian fashion labels, such as Gucci, Armani, Prada, Versace, Valentino, Dolce & Gabbana, Missoni, Fendi, Moschino, Max Mara, Trussardi, and Ferragamo, to name a few, are regarded as among the finest fashion houses in the world. Jewellers like Bvlgari, Damiani and Buccellati have been founded in Italy. Also, the fashion magazine Vogue Italia, is considered one of the most prestigious fashion magazines in the world. The talent of young, creative fashion is also promoted, as in the ITS young fashion designer competition in Trieste.

Italy is also prominent in the field of design, notably interior design, architectural design, industrial design and urban design. The country has produced some well-known furniture designers, such as Gio Ponti and Ettore Sottsass, and Italian phrases such as "Bel Disegno" and "Linea Italiana" have entered the vocabulary of furniture design. Examples of classic pieces of Italian white goods and pieces of furniture include Zanussi's washing machines and fridges, the "New Tone" sofas by Atrium, and the post-modern bookcase by Ettore Sottsass, inspired by Bob Dylan's song "Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again". Today, Milan and Turin are the nation's leaders in architectural design and industrial design. The city of Milan hosts Fiera Milano, Europe's largest design fair. Milan also hosts major design and architecture-related events and venues, such as the "Fuori Salone" and the Salone del Mobile, and has been home to the designers Bruno Munari, Lucio Fontana, Enrico Castellani and Piero Manzoni.

Cuisine

The Italian cuisine has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots as far back as the 4th century BC. Italian cuisine in itself takes heavy influences, including Etruscan, ancient Greek, ancient Roman, Byzantine, and Jewish. Significant changes occurred with the discovery of the New World with the introduction of items such as potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers and maize, now central to the cuisine but not introduced in quantity until the 18th century. Italian cuisine is noted for its regional diversity, abundance of difference in taste, and is known to be one of the most popular in the world, wielding strong influence abroad.

The Mediterranean diet forms the basis of Italian cuisine, rich in pasta, fish, fruits and vegetables and characterised by its extreme simplicity and variety, with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients. Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the ingredients rather than on elaborate preparation. Dishes and recipes are often derivatives from local and familial tradition rather than created by chefs, so many recipes are ideally suited for home cooking, this being one of the main reasons behind the ever-increasing worldwide popularity of Italian cuisine, from America to Asia. Ingredients and dishes vary widely by region.

Italian cuisine relies heavily on traditional products; the country has a large number of traditional specialities protected under EU law. Cheese, cold cuts and wine are central to Italian cuisine, with many regional declinations and Protected Designation of Origin or Protected Geographical Indication labels, and along with pizza and coffee (especially espresso) form part of Italian gastronomic culture. Desserts have a long tradition of merging local flavours such as citrus fruits, pistachio and almonds with sweet cheeses like mascarpone and ricotta or exotic tastes as cocoa, vanilla and cinnamon. Gelato, tiramisù and cassata are among the most famous examples of Italian desserts, cakes and patisserie.

Italian meal structure is typical of the European Mediterranean region and differs from North, Central, and Eastern European meal structure, though it still often consists of breakfast (colazione), lunch (pranzo), and dinner (cena). However, much less emphasis is placed on breakfast, and breakfast itself is often skipped or involves lighter meal portions than are seen in non-Mediterranean Western countries. Late-morning and mid-afternoon snacks, called merenda (plural merende), are also often included in this meal structure.

The marketing phenomenon consisting of words and images, colour combinations (the Italian tricolour) and geographical references for brands that are evocative of Italy to promote and market agri-food products that have nothing to do with Italian cuisine is known by the name of Italian Sounding.

Public holidays, festivals and folklore

Public holidays celebrated in Italy include religious, national and regional observances. Italy's National Day, the Festa della Repubblica (Republic Day), is celebrated on 2 June each year, with the main celebration taking place in Rome, and commemorates the birth of the Italian Republic in 1946. The ceremony of the event organized in Rome includes the deposition of a laurel wreath as a tribute to the Italian Unknown Soldier at the Altare della Patria by the President of the Italian Republic and a military parade along Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome.

The Saint Lucy's Day, which takes place on 13 December, is popular among children in some Italian regions, where she plays a role similar to Santa Claus. In addition, the Epiphany in Italy is associated with the folkloristic figure of the Befana, a broomstick-riding old woman who, in the night between 5 and 6 January, bringing good children gifts and sweets, and bad ones charcoal or bags of ashes. The Assumption of Mary coincides with Ferragosto on 15 August, the summer vacation period which may be a long weekend or most of the month.

The Italian national patronal day, on 4 October, celebrates Saints Francis and Catherine. Each city or town also celebrates a public holiday on the occasion of the festival of the local patron saint, for example: Rome on 29 June (Saints Peter and Paul), Milan on 7 December (Saint Ambrose), Naples on 19 September (Saint Januarius), Venice on 25 April (Saint Mark the Evangelist) and Florence on 24 June (Saint John the Baptist).

There are many festivals and festivities in Italy. Some of them include the Palio di Siena horse race, Holy Week rites, Saracen Joust of Arezzo, Saint Ubaldo Day in Gubbio, Giostra della Quintana in Foligno, and the Calcio Fiorentino. In 2013, UNESCO has included among the intangible cultural heritage some Italian festivals and pasos (in Italian "macchine a spalla"), such as the Varia di Palmi, the Macchina di Santa Rosa in Viterbo, the Festa dei Gigli in Nola, and faradda di li candareri in Sassari.

Other festivals include the carnivals in Venice, Viareggio, Satriano di Lucania, Mamoiada, and Ivrea, mostly known for its Battle of the Oranges. The Venice International Film Festival, awarding the "Golden Lion" and held annually since 1932, is the oldest film festival in the world and one of the "Big Three" alongside Cannes and Berlin.

See also

• Outline of Italy

Notes

1. Template:Lang-it [reˈpubblika itaˈljaːna].

1. Italy is often grouped in Western Europe. Academic works describing Italy as a Western European country:
   • Hancock, M. Donald; Conradt, David P.; Peters, B. Guy; Safran, William; Zariski, Raphael (11 November 1998). Politics in Western Europe: an introduction to the politics of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, and the European Union (2nd ed.). Chatham House Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56643-039-5. list of Western European countries Italy.
   • Ugo, Ascoli; Emmanuele, Pavolini (2016). The Italian welfare state in a European perspective: A comparative analysis. Policy Press. ISBN 978-1-4473-3444-6.
   • Zloch-Christy, Iliana (1991). East-West Financial Relations: Current Problems and Future Prospects. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39530-4. Retrieved 29 September 2019. list of Western European countries Italy.
   • Clout, Hugh D. (1989). Western Europe: Geographical Perspectives. Longman Scientific & Technical. ISBN 978-0-582-01772-6. Retrieved 29 September 2019.
   • Furlong, Paul (2003). Modern Italy: Representation and Reform. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-97983-7. Retrieved 29 September 2019.
   • Hanf, Kenneth; Jansen, Alf-Inge (2014). Governance and Environment in Western Europe: Politics, Policy and Administration. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-87917-6. Retrieved 29 September 2019.
2. Though the modern state of Italy had yet to be established, the Latin equivalent of the term Italian had been in use for natives of the region since antiquity. See Pliny the Elder, Letters 9.23.
3. The Guardia di Finanza also operates a large fleet of ships, aircraft and helicopters, enabling it to patrol Italy's waters and to eventually participate in warfare scenarios.
4. According to Mitrica, an October 2005 Romanian report estimates that 1,061,400 Romanians are living in Italy, constituting 37% of 2.8 million immigrants in that country but it is unclear how the estimate was made, and therefore whether it should be taken seriously.
5. The Holy See's sovereignty has been recognized explicitly in many international agreements and is particularly emphasized in article 2 of the Lateran Treaty of 11 February 1929, in which "Italy recognizes the sovereignty of the Holy See in international matters as an inherent attribute in conformity with its traditions and the requirements of its mission to the world" (Lateran Treaty, English translation).

References

1. ^ "Indicatori demografici, anno 2020" (PDF). Retrieved 3 May 2021.
2. "Special Eurobarometer 516". European Union: European Commission. September 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2021 – via European Data Portal (see Volume C: Country/socio-demographics: IT: Question D90.2.).
3. ^ "Italy". Central Intelligence Agency. 23 August 2023. Retrieved 28 August 2023 – via CIA.gov.
4. "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Retrieved 11 October 2020.
5. "ISTAT - Demography, Statistics, Demographic Balance, Resident Population". demo.istat.it. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
6. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Italy)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
7. "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey". ec.europa.eu. Eurostat. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
8. "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
9. Year-month-day also sometimes used, though rarely, mainly used for computing contexts. See Date and time notation in Italy.
10. "Legge Regionale 15 ottobre 1997, n. 26". Regione autonoma della Sardegna – Regione Autònoma de Sardigna. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
11. "Regione Autonoma Friuli Venezia Giulia – Comunità linguistiche regionali". www.regione.fvg.it.
12. "Comune di Campione d'Italia". Comune.campione-d-italia.co.it. 14 July 2010. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
13. "COSTITUZIONE DELLA REPUBBLICA ITALIANA". www.gazzettaufficiale.it. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
14. "Constitution of the Italian Republic (English)" (PDF). Senate of the Republic (Italy). Retrieved 28 May 2021.
15. "United Nations – Change of name of country" (PDF). unterm.un.org. United Nations. 16 July 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
16. "OFFICIAL NAMES OF THE UNITED NATIONS MEMBERSHIP" (PDF). un.int. United Nations. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
17. "Southern Europe, a peninsula extending into the central Mediterranean Sea, northeast of Tunisia". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 17 August 2021.
18. "UNSD — Methodology". unstats.un.org.
19. "Italy – Facts, Geography, & History". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
20. ^ "UNITED NATIONS DGACM". www.un.org.
21. ^ "Italia", Dizionario enciclopedico italiano (in Italian), vol. VI, Treccani, 1970, p. 413
22. "Italy Population 2022 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs)". worldpopulationreview.com. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
23. Carl Waldman; Catherine Mason (2006). Encyclopedia of European Peoples. Infobase Publishing. p. 586. ISBN 978-1-4381-2918-1. Retrieved 23 February 2013.
24. Mommsen, Theodor (1855). History of Rome, Book II: From the Abolition of the Monarchy in Rome to the Union of Italy. Leipzig: Reimer & Hirsel.
25. Lazenby, John Francis (4 February 1998). Hannibal's War: A Military History of the Second Punic War. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-8061-3004-0 – via Internet Archive. Italy homeland of the Romans.
26. ^ Sée, Henri. "Modern Capitalism Its Origin and Evolution" (PDF). University of Rennes. Batoche Books. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2013.
27. "Italian Trade Cities | Western Civilization". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
28. "Gli antichi Stati italiani" (PDF) (in Italian).
29. Accetturo, Antonio; Mocetti, Sauro (2019). "Historical Origins and Developments of Italian Cities". Italian Economic Journal. 5 (2): 205–222. doi:10.1007/s40797-019-00097-w.
30. Bouchard, Norma; Ferme, Valerio (2013). Italy and the Mediterranean: Words, Sounds, and Images of the Post-Cold War Era. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-34346-8. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
31. "Unification of Italy". Library.thinkquest.org. 4 April 2003. Archived from the original on 7 March 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
32. "The Italian Colonial Empire". All Empires. Archived from the original on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 17 June 2012. At its peak, just before WWII, the Italian Empire comprehended the territories of present time Italy, Albania, Rhodes, Dodecanese, Libya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, the majority of Somalia and the little concession of Tientsin in China
33. Jon Rynn. "WHAT IS A GREAT POWER?" (PDF). economicreconstruction.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 April 2017. Retrieved 15 March 2017.
34. "IMF Advanced Economies List. World Economic Outlook, April 2016, p. 148" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 April 2016.
35. Gabriele Abbondanza, Italy as a Regional Power: the African Context from National Unification to the Present Day (Rome: Aracne, 2016)
36. "Operation Alba may be considered one of the most important instances in which Italy has acted as a regional power, taking the lead in executing a technically and politically coherent and determined strategy." See Federiga Bindi, Italy and the European Union (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2011), p. 171.
37. Canada Among Nations, 2004: Setting Priorities Straight. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. 17 January 2005. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-7735-2836-9. Retrieved 13 June 2016. ("The United States is the sole world's superpower. France, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom are great powers")
38. Sterio, Milena (2013). The right to self-determination under international law: "selfistans", secession and the rule of the great powers. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. p. xii (preface). ISBN 978-0-415-66818-7. Retrieved 13 June 2016. ("The great powers are super-sovereign states: an exclusive club of the most powerful states economically, militarily, politically and strategically. These states include veto-wielding members of the United Nations Security Council (United States, United Kingdom, France, China, and Russia), as well as economic powerhouses such as Germany, Italy and Japan.")
39. Michael Barone (2 September 2010). "The essence of Italian culture and the challenge of the global age". Council for Research in Values and philosophy. Archived from the original on 22 September 2012. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
40. Alberto Manco, Italia. Disegno storico-linguistico, 2009, Napoli, L'Orientale, ISBN 978-88-95044-62-0
41. J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams, Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (London: Fitzroy and Dearborn, 1997), 24.
42. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1.35, on LacusCurtius
43. Aristotle, Politics, 7.1329b Archived 10 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, on Perseus
44. Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, 6.2.4 Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, on Perseus
45. Pallottino, M., History of Earliest Italy, trans. Ryle, M & Soper, K. in Jerome Lectures, Seventeenth Series, p. 50
46. Giovanni Brizzi, Roma. Potere e identità: dalle origini alla nascita dell'impero cristiano, Bologna, Patron, 2012 p. 94
47. Carlà-Uhink, Filippo (25 September 2017). The "Birth" of Italy: The Institutionalization of Italy as a Region, 3rd–1st Century BCE. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-054478-7.
48. Levene, D. S. (17 June 2010). Livy on the Hannibalic War. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815295-8.
49. Carlà-Uhink, Filippo (25 September 2017). The "Birth" of Italy: The Institutionalization of Italy as a Region, 3rd–1st Century BCE. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-054478-7.
50. Williams, J. H. C. (22 May 2020). Beyond the Rubicon: Romans and Gauls in Republican Italy – J. H. C. Williams – Google Books. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198153009. Archived from the original on 22 May 2020.
51. Long, George (1866). Decline of the Roman republic: Volume 2. London.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
52. Cassius, Dio. Historia Romana. Vol. 41. 36.
53. Laffi, Umberto (1992). "La provincia della Gallia Cisalpina". Athenaeum (in Italian) (80): 5–23.
54. Aurigemma, Salvatore. "Gallia Cisalpina". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Enciclopedia Italiana. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
55. "Italy (ancient Roman territory)". britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
56. "La riorganizzazione amministrativa dell'Italia. Costantino, Roma, il Senato e gli equilibri dell'Italia romana" (in Italian). Retrieved 19 November 2021.
57. Strabo, Geographica, V, 1,1.
58. Letters 9.23
59. ytaliiens (1265) TLFi Archived 29 October 2018 at the Wayback Machine
60. "IL COMUNE MEDIEVALE". www.homolaicus.com. Archived from the original on 18 March 2012.
61. "Sassi di Matera". AmusingPlanet.
62. Society, National Geographic. "Erano padani i primi abitanti d'Italia". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
63. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers 2001, ch. 2. ISBN 0-306-46463-2.
64. 42.7–41.5 ka (1σ CI). Douka, Katerina; et al. (2012). "A new chronostratigraphic framework for the Upper Palaeolithic of Riparo Mochi (Italy)". Journal of Human Evolution. 62 (2): 286–299. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.11.009. PMID 22189428.
65. "Istituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria". IIPP. 29 January 2010. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013.
66. "Rock Drawings in Valcamonica". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
67. Bonani, Georges; Ivy, Susan D.; et al. (1994). "AMS
    C
    Age Determination of Tissue, Bone and Grass Samples from the Ötzal Ice Man" (PDF). Radiocarbon. 36 (2): 247–250. doi:10.1017/s0033822200040534. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
68. Raclot, Thierry; Oudart, Hugues (January 2000). "CORPS GRAS ET OBESITE Acides gras alimentaires et obésité: aspects qualitatifs et quantitatifs". Oléagineux, Corps gras, Lipides. 7 (1): 77–85. doi:10.1051/ocl.2000.0077. ISSN 1258-8210.
69. The Mycenaeans Archived 27 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine and Italy: the archaeological and archaeometric ceramic evidence, University of Glasgow, Department of Archaeology
70. Gert Jan van Wijngaarden, Use and Appreciation of Mycenaean Pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy (1600–1200 B.C.): The Significance of Context, Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, Amsterdam University Press, 2001
71. Bryan Feuer, Mycenaean civilization: an annotated bibliography through 2002, McFarland & Company; Rev Sub edition (2 March 2004)
72. Emilio Peruzzi, Mycenaeans in early Latium, (Incunabula Graeca 75), Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, Roma, 1980
73. "II 1987: Uomini e vicende di Magna Grecia". www.bpp.it. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
74. Morcillo, Marta García. "The Glory of Italy and Rome's Universal Destiny in Strabo's Geographika, in: A. Fear – P. Liddel (eds), Historiae Mundi. Studies in Universal History. Duckworth: London 2010: 87-101". Historiae Mundi: Studies in Universal History. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
75. Keaveney, Arthur (January 1987). Arthur Keaveney: Rome and the Unification of Italy. Croom Helm. ISBN 9780709931218. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
76. Billanovich, Giuseppe (2008). Libreria Universitaria Hoepli, Lezioni di filologia, Giuseppe Billanovich e Roberto Pesce: Corpus Iuris Civilis, Italia non erat provincia, sed domina provinciarum, Feltrinelli, p.363 (in Italian). Roberto Pesce. ISBN 9788896543092. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
77. Fear, Andrew (25 March 2010). Historiae Mundi: Studies in Universal History. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-4725-1980-1.
78. Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 115–138. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959.
79. Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (2006). "East–West Orientation of Historical Empires" (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222. doi:10.5195/JWSR.2006.369. ISSN 1076-156X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
80. Richard, Carl J. (2010). Why we're all Romans: the Roman contribution to the western world (1st pbk. ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. xi–xv. ISBN 978-0-7425-6779-5.
81. Sarris, Peter (2011). Empires of faith: the fall of Rome to the rise of Islam, 500–700 (1st. pub. ed.). Oxford: Oxford UP. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-19-926126-0.
82. "History of Italy". Britannica. ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
83. "Carolingian and post-Carolingian Italy, 774–962". britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 October 2022.
84. Nolan, Cathal J. (2006). The age of wars of religion, 1000–1650: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization (1. publ. ed.). Westport (Connecticut): Greenwood Press. p. 360. ISBN 978-0-313-33045-2.
85. "Marco Polo – Exploration". History.com. Retrieved 9 January 2017.
86. Jones, Philip (1997). The Italian city-state: from Commune to Signoria. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 55–77. ISBN 978-0-19-822585-0.
87. Niall, Ferguson (2008). The Ascent of Money: The Financial History of the World. Penguin.
88. ^ Lane, Frederic C. (1991). Venice, a maritime republic (4. print. ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-8018-1460-0.
89. G. Benvenuti – Le Repubbliche Marinare. Amalfi, Pisa, Genova, Venezia – Newton & Compton editori, Roma 1989; Armando Lodolini, Le repubbliche del mare, Biblioteca di storia patria, 1967, Roma. Peris, Persi (1982). Conoscere l'Italia. Istituto Geografico De Agostini. p. 74.
90. "Repubbliche Marinare". Treccani.it (in Italian). Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana.
91. "Repubbliche marinare". thes.bncf.firenze.sbn.it (in Italian). National Central Library (Florence).
92. Zorzi, Alvise (1983). Venice: The Golden Age, 697 – 1797. New York: Abbeville Press. p. 255. ISBN 0-89659-406-8. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
93. Ali, Ahmed Essa with Othman (2010). Studies in Islamic civilization: the Muslim contribution to the Renaissance. Herndon, VA: International Institute of Islamic Thought. pp. 38–40. ISBN 978-1-56564-350-5.
94. Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, "The Biggest Epidemics of History" (La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire), in L'Histoire n° 310, June 2006, pp. 45–46
95. "Plague". Brown University. Archived 31 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine
96. ^ Strathern, Paul The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance (2003)
97. Peter Barenboim, Sergey Shiyan, Michelangelo: Mysteries of Medici Chapel, SLOVO, Moscow, 2006 Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine. ISBN 5-85050-825-2
98. Encyclopædia Britannica, Renaissance, 2008, O.Ed.
99. Har, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World, Scarecrow Press Incorporate, 1999, ISBN 0-8108-3724-2
100. Norwich, John Julius, A Short History of Byzantium, 1997, Knopf, ISBN 0-679-45088-2
101. Leonardo Bruni; James Hankins (9 October 2010). History of the Florentine People. Vol. 1. Boston: Harvard University Press. Archived from the original on 3 January 2013.
102. Encyclopædia Britannica, 1993 ed., Vol. 16, pp. 605ff / Morison, Christopher Columbus, 1955 ed., pp. 14ff
103. "Catholic Encyclopedia "John & Sebastian Cabot"". newadvent. 2007. Retrieved 17 May 2008.
104. Eric Martone (2016). Italian Americans: The History and Culture of a People. ABC-CLIO. p. 504. ISBN 9781610699952.
105. Greene, George Washington (1837). The Life and Voyages of Verrazzano. Cambridge University: Folsom, Wells, and Thurston. p. 13. Retrieved 18 August 2017 – via Google Books.
106. Napoleon Bonaparte, "The Economy of the Empire in Italy: Instructions from Napoleon to Eugène, Viceroy of Italy," Exploring the European Past: Texts & Images, Second Edition, ed. Timothy E. Gregory (Mason: Thomson, 2007), 65–66.
107. Maiorino, Tarquinio; Marchetti Tricamo, Giuseppe; Zagami, Andrea (2002). Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera (in Italian). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. p. 156. ISBN 978-88-04-50946-2.
108. The tri-coloured standard.Getting to Know Italy, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (retrieved 5 October 2008) Archived 23 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine
109. Article 1 of the law n. 671 of 31 December 1996 ("National celebration of the bicentenary of the first national flag")
110. Ferorelli, Nicola (1925). "La vera origine del tricolore italiano". Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento (in Italian). XII (fasc. III): 662. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
111. Tarozzi, Fiorenza; Vecchio, Giorgio (1999). Gli italiani e il tricolore (in Italian). Il Mulino. pp. 67–68. ISBN 88-15-07163-6.
112. ^ "Scholar and Patriot". Manchester University Press – via Google Books.
113. "Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian revolutionary)". Archived from the original on 26 February 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
114. "Risorgimento in "Dizionario di Storia"". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 22 September 2022.
115. Maiorino, Tarquinio; Marchetti Tricamo, Giuseppe; Zagami, Andrea (2002). Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera (in Italian). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. p. 18. ISBN 978-88-04-50946-2.
116. "Fratelli d'Italia" (in Italian). Retrieved 1 October 2021.
117. Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, (University of Michigan Press, 1997) p. 15. A literary echo may be found in the character of Giorgio Viola in Joseph Conrad's Nostromo.
118. Enrico Dal Lago, "Lincoln, Cavour, and National Unification: American Republicanism and Italian Liberal Nationalism in Comparative Perspective." The Journal of the Civil War Era 3#1 (2013): 85–113.
119. William L. Langer, ed., An Encyclopedia of World Cup History. 4th ed. 1968. pp 704–7.
120. ""Un nizzardo su quattro prese la via dell'esilio" in seguito all'unità d'Italia, dice lo scrittore Casalino Pierluigi" (in Italian). 28 August 2017. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
121. Mack Smith, Denis (1997). Modern Italy; A Political History. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10895-6
122. "Everything you need to know about March 17th, Italy's Unity Day". 17 March 2017. Retrieved 17 July 2017.
123. (Bosworth (2005), p. 49.)
124. "Il 1861 e le quattro Guerre per l'Indipendenza (1848–1918)" (in Italian). 6 March 2015. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
125. "La Grande Guerra nei manifesti italiani dell'epoca" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
126. Genovesi, Piergiovanni (11 June 2009). Il Manuale di Storia in Italia, di Piergiovanni Genovesi (in Italian). FrancoAngeli. ISBN 9788856818680. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
127. Burgwyn, H. James: Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997. p. 4. ISBN 0-275-94877-3
128. Schindler, John R.: Isonzo: The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001. p. 303. ISBN 0-275-97204-6
129. Mack Smith, Denis: Mussolini. Knopf, 1982. p. 31. ISBN 0-394-50694-4
130. Mortara, G (1925). La Salute pubblica in Italia durante e dopo la Guerra. New Haven: Yale University Press.
131. G.Sabbatucci, La vittoria mutilata, in AA.VV., Miti e storia dell'Italia unita, Il Mulino, Bologna 1999, pp.101–106
132. Lyttelton, Adrian (2008). The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929. New York: Routledge. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-415-55394-0.
133. "March on Rome | Italian history". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
134. Aristotle A. Kallis. Fascist ideology: territory and expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922–1945. London, England, UK; New York City, USA: Routledge, 2000, pp. 41.
135. Terence Ball, Richard Bellamy. The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought. Pp. 133
136. Jozo Tomasevich. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press, 2001. P. 131.
137. Larry Wolff. Venice And the Slavs: The Discovery of Dalmatia in the Age of Enlightenment. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford University Press, P. 355.
138. Aristotle A. Kallis. Fascist Ideology: Expansionism in Italy and Germany 1922–1945. London, England; UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2000. P. 118.
139. Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986, 1999. P. 38.
140. ^ Davide Rodogno. Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation during the Second World War. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. P. 88.
141. "I nomi dei comuni valdostani durante il fascismo" (in Italian). Retrieved 8 February 2022.
142. Stephen J. Lee (2008). European Dictatorships, 1918–1945. Routledge. pp. 157–58. ISBN 978-0-415-45484-1.
143. James H. Burgwyn (2004). General Roatta's war against the partisans in Yugoslavia: 1942 Archived 21 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, Volume 9, Number 3, pp. 314–329(16)
144. Italy's bloody secret (archived by WebCite), written by Rory Carroll, Education, The Guardian, June 2001
145. Effie Pedaliu (2004) JSTOR 4141408? Britain and the 'Hand-over' of Italian War Criminals to Yugoslavia, 1945–48. Journal of Contemporary History. Vol. 39, No. 4, Special Issue: Collective Memory, pp. 503–529
146. Oliva, Gianni (2006) «Si ammazza troppo poco». I crimini di guerra italiani. 1940–43 Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Mondadori, ISBN 88-04-55129-1
147. Baldissara, Luca & Pezzino, Paolo (2004). Crimini e memorie di guerra: violenze contro le popolazioni e politiche del ricordo, L'Ancora del Mediterraneo. ISBN 978-88-8325-135-1
148. ^ G. Bianchi, La Resistenza, in: AA.VV., Storia d'Italia, vol. 8, pp. 368-369.
149. "Storia della guerra civile in Italia" (PDF). Retrieved 28 August 2023.
150. See the books from Italian historian Giorgio Pisanò Storia della guerra civile in Italia, 1943–1945, 3 voll., Milano, FPE, 1965 and the book L'Italia della guerra civile ("Italy of civil war"), published in 1983 by the Italian writer and journalist Indro Montanelli as the fifteen volume of the Storia d'Italia ("History of Italy") by the same author.
151. Pavone, Claudio (1991). Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza (in Italian). Torino: Bollati Boringhieri. p. 238. ISBN 88-339-0629-9.
152. Viganò, Marino (2001), "Un'analisi accurata della presunta fuga in Svizzera", Nuova Storia Contemporanea (in Italian), 3
153. "1945: Italian partisans kill Mussolini". BBC News. 28 April 1945. Archived from the original on 26 November 2011. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
154. "Italy – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Archived from the original on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
155. Adrian Lyttelton (editor), "Liberal and fascist Italy, 1900–1945", Oxford University Press, 2002. p. 13
156. "Italia", Dizionario enciclopedico italiano (in Italian), vol. VI, Treccani, 1970, p. 456
157. Damage Foreshadows A-Bomb Test, 1946/06/06 (1946). Universal Newsreel. 1946. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
158. "Italia 1946: le donne al voto, dossier a cura di Mariachiara Fugazza e Silvia Cassamagnaghi" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
159. "La prima volta in cui le donne votarono in Italia, 75 anni fa". Il Post (in Italian). 10 March 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
160. Tobagi, Benedetta. "La Repubblica italiana | Treccani, il portale del sapere". Treccani.it. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
161. Lawrence S. Kaplan; Morris Honick (2007). NATO 1948: The Birth of the Transatlantic Alliance. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 52–55. ISBN 978-0-7425-3917-4.
162. Robert Ventresca (2004). From Fascism to Democracy: Culture and Politics in the Italian Election of 1948. University of Toronto Press. pp. 236–37.
163. "Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabili delle stragi (Parliamentary investigative commission on terrorism in Italy and the failure to identify the perpetrators)" (PDF) (in Italian). 1995. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2006. Retrieved 2 May 2006.
164. (in English, Italian, French, and German) "Secret Warfare: Operation Gladio and NATO's Stay-Behind Armies". Swiss Federal Institute of Technology / International Relation and Security Network. Archived from the original on 25 April 2006. Retrieved 2 May 2006.
165. "Clarion: Philip Willan, Guardian, 24 June 2000, p. 19". Cambridgeclarion.org. 24 June 2000. Archived from the original on 29 March 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
166. "New Arrests for Via D'Amelio Bomb Attack". corriere.it. 8 March 2012.
167. John Dickie (2007). Cosa Nostra. A History of the Sicilian Mafia. Hodder & Stoughton. p. 416. ISBN 978-0340935262.
168. "Sentenza del processo di 1º grado a Francesco Tagliavia per le stragi del 1993" (PDF).
169. "Audizione del procuratore Sergio Lari dinanzi alla Commissione Parlamentare Antimafia – XVI LEGISLATURA (PDF)" (PDF). Retrieved 28 August 2023.
170. The so-called "Second Republic" was born by forceps: not with a revolt of Algiers, but formally under the same Constitution, with the mere replacement of one ruling class by another: Buonomo, Giampiero (2015). "Tovaglie pulite". Mondoperaio Edizione Online.
171. Hooper, John (16 November 2011). "Mario Monti appoints technocrats to steer Italy out of economic crisis". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
172. "New Italian PM Paolo Gentiloni sworn in". BBC News. 12 December 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
173. "What will Italy's new government mean for migrants?". The Local Italy. 21 May 2018.
174. "African migrants fear for future as Italy struggles with surge in arrivals". Reuters. 18 July 2017.
175. "Italy starts to show the strains of migrant influx". The Local. Archived from the original on 29 April 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
176. "Italy's far right jolts back from dead". Politico. 3 February 2016. Archived from the original on 19 January 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2017.
177. "Opinion – The Populists Take Rome". The New York Times. 24 May 2018. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
178. "Italy's Conte forms coalition of bitter rivals, booting far-right from power". France 24. 5 September 2019. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
179. "New Italian government formed, allying M5S and the center-left | DW | 4 September 2019". Deutsche Welle. 4 September 2019. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
180. Nuovo coronavirus, Minsitero della Salute
181. "Coronavirus: Italy extends emergency measures nationwide". BBC News. 10 March 2020.
182. Beaumont, Peter; Sample, Ian (10 March 2020). "From confidence to quarantine: how coronavirus swept Italy". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
183. "Coronavirus, Conte firma il nuovo Dpcm: in semi-lockdown per un mese. Stop a bar e ristoranti alle 18 ma aperti la domenica". la Repubblica (in Italian). 25 October 2020. Retrieved 25 October 2020.
184. De Feo, Gianluca (20 March 2020). "Sondaggio Demos: gradimento per Conte alle stelle". YouTrend (in Italian). Retrieved 22 March 2020.
185. "Blog | Coronavirus, la sospensione delle libertà costituzionali è realtà. Ma per me ce la stiamo cavando bene". Il Fatto Quotidiano (in Italian). 18 March 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
186. "Un uomo solo è al comando dell'Italia, e nessuno ha niente da ridire". Linkiesta (in Italian). 24 March 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2020.
187. Ellyatt, Holly (19 March 2020). "Italy's lockdown will be extended, prime minister says as death toll spikes and hospitals struggle". CNBC. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
188. L'Italia pagherà il conto più salato della crisi post-epidemia, AGI
189. Mario Draghi sworn in as Italy's new prime minister, BBC
190. "Mario Draghi's new government to be sworn in on Saturday". The Guardian. 12 February 2021.
191. "Who is Giorgia Meloni? The rise to power of Italy's new far-right PM". BBC News. 21 October 2022.
192. "San Marino". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2012. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
193. "Vatican country profile". BBC News. 2018. Retrieved 24 August 2018.
194. "Democracy in Figures". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
195. ^ "Principali dimensioni geostatistiche e grado di urbanizzazione del Paese". www.istat.it. 30 October 2014.
196. ^ Riganti, dir. da Alberto (1991). Enciclopedia universale Garzanti (Nuova ed. aggiornata e ampliata. ed.). Milano: Garzanti. ISBN 88-11-50459-7.
197. "Morphometric and hydrological characteristics of some important Italian lakes". Verbania Pallanza: Istituto per lo Studio degli Ecosistemi. Archived from the original on 5 February 2010. Retrieved 3 March 2010.
198. Cushman-Roisin, Gačić & Poulain 2001, pp. 1–2.
199. Limits of Oceans and Seas (PDF) (3rd ed.). Organisation hydrographique internationale. 1953. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 28 December 2020.
200. Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). "Tyrrhenian Sea". Encyclopedia Britannica. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
201. Zwingle, Erla (May 2002). "Italy's Po River Punished for centuries by destructive floods, northern Italians stubbornly embrace their nation's longest river, which nurtures rice fields, vineyards, fisheries—and legends". National Geographic. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
202. "List of Italian rivers". comuni-italiani.it. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
203. "Italy – Environment". Dev.prenhall.com. Archived from the original on 1 July 2009. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
204. "National Parks in Italy". Parks.it. 1995–2010. Archived from the original on 29 March 2010. Retrieved 15 March 2010.
205. "Regione e aree protette" (in Italian). Retrieved 11 January 2022.
206. "Le aree protette in Italia" (in Italian). Retrieved 2 March 2022.
207. "Renewables 2010 Global Status Report" (PDF). REN21. 15 July 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 August 2011. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
208. "Photovoltaic energy barometer 2010 – EurObserv'ER" (PDF). Retrieved 30 October 2010.
209. "World Wind Energy Report 2010" (PDF). Report. World Wind Energy Association. February 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 September 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
210. "Renewables provided 37% of Italy's energy in 2020 – English". ANSA.it. 25 May 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
211. United Nations Statistics Division, Millennium Development Goals indicators: Carbon dioxide emissions (CO₂), thousand metric tons of CO₂ Archived 25 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine (collected by CDIAC)
212. Human-produced, direct emissions of carbon dioxide only. Excludes other greenhouse gases; land-use, land-use-change and forestry (LULUCF); and natural background flows of CO₂ (See also: Carbon cycle)
213. "Environment and Health in Italy – Executive Summary" (PDF). www.euro.who.int. Archived from the original on 3 March 2010.
214. Duncan Kennedy (14 June 2011). "Italy nuclear: Berlusconi accepts referendum blow". Bbc.co.uk. Archived from the original on 12 June 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
215. Nick Squires (2 October 2009). "Sicily mudslide leaves scores dead". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 6 October 2009. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
216. Grantham, H. S.; Duncan, A.; Evans, T. D.; Jones, K. R.; Beyer, H. L.; Schuster, R.; Walston, J.; Ray, J. C.; Robinson, J. G.; Callow, M.; Clements, T.; Costa, H. M.; DeGemmis, A.; Elsen, P. R.; Ervin, J.; Franco, P.; Goldman, E.; Goetz, S.; Hansen, A.; Hofsvang, E.; Jantz, P.; Jupiter, S.; Kang, A.; Langhammer, P.; Laurance, W. F.; Lieberman, S.; Linkie, M.; Malhi, Y.; Maxwell, S.; Mendez, M.; Mittermeier, R.; Murray, N. J.; Possingham, H.; Radachowsky, J.; Saatchi, S.; Samper, C.; Silverman, J.; Shapiro, A.; Strassburg, B.; Stevens, T.; Stokes, E.; Taylor, R.; Tear, T.; Tizard, R.; Venter, O.; Visconti, P.; Wang, S.; Watson, J. E. M. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
217. {"Italy's Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity" (PDF). Italian Ministry for the Environment, Land and Sea. p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 17 May 2015.
218. "Italy - Main Details". Convention on Biological Diversity. Retrieved 10 September 2023.
219. "CHECKLIST E DISTRIBUZIONE DELLA FAUNA ITALIANA" (PDF) (in Italian). p. 29. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
220. "Mammiferi d'Italia - Ministero della Transizione Ecologica" (PDF) (in Italian). p. 7. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
221. "Uccelli" (in Italian). Retrieved 11 March 2022.
222. Peter Uetz; Jakob Hallermann; Jiri Hosek. "Distribution: italy". The Reptile Database. Retrieved 22 June 2021.
223. "Quali sono gli anfibi autoctoni?" (in Italian). Retrieved 11 March 2022.
224. "All fishes reported from Italy". Retrieved 10 March 2022.
225. "Dove operiamo" (in Italian). Retrieved 11 March 2022.
226. Pignatti, S. (1982). Flora d'Italia. Edagricole, Bologna, vol. 1–3, 1982
227. "Riccardo Guarino, Sabina Addamiano, Marco La Rosa, Sandro Pignatti Flora Italiana Digitale:an interactive identification tool for the Flora of Italy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2016.
228. "An inventory of vascular plants endemic to Italy". Retrieved 12 March 2022.
229. "I parchi fioriti e gli orti botanici più belli d'Italia" (in Italian). Retrieved 14 March 2022.
230. "Top10: i giardini più belli d'Italia" (in Italian). Retrieved 15 March 2022.
231. "Alla scoperta delle meraviglie del giardino all'italiana" (in Italian). 11 March 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
232. Sheri Foster (January 2021). "What is Italy national animal?". Yourtrip.com.
233. James Hansen (June 2018). "Il lupo grigio degli appennini e l animale dell Italia".
234. ^ "Il corbezzolo simbolo dell'Unità d'Italia. Una specie che resiste agli incendi" (in Italian). 3 October 2011. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2016.
235. Livy (1797). The history of Rome. George Baker (trans.). Printed for A. Strahan.
236. Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018). "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Scientific Data. 5: 180214. Bibcode:2018NatSD...580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988.
237. "Che cosa significa clima temperato e cosa significa clima continentale" (in Italian). Retrieved 8 March 2022.
238. Adriana Rigutti, Meteorologia, Giunti, p. 95, 2009.
239. Thomas A. Blair, Climatology: General and Regional, Prentice Hall pp. 131–132
240. "Climate Atlas of Italy". Network of the Air Force Meteorological Service. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
241. Smyth, Howard McGaw Italy: From Fascism to the Republic (1943–1946) The Western Political Quarterly vol. 1 no. 3 (pp. 205–222), September 1948.JSTOR 442274
242. "About us – Sistema di informazione per la sicurezza della Repubblica". www.sicurezzanazionale.gov.it. Archived from the original on 29 March 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
243. "GERARCHIA DELLE FONTI" (in Italian). Retrieved 26 March 2022.
244. "Guide to Law Online: Italy | Law Library of Congress". www.loc.gov.
245. Claudio Tucci (11 November 2008). "Confesercenti, la crisi economica rende ancor più pericolosa la mafia". Confesercenti (in Italian). Ilsole24ore.com. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
246. Nick Squires (9 January 2010). "Italy claims finally defeating the mafia". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
247. Kiefer, Peter (22 October 2007). "Mafia crime is 7% of GDP in Italy, group reports". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
248. Maria Loi (1 October 2009). "Rapporto Censis: 13 milioni di italiani convivono con la mafia". Censis (in Italian). Antimafia Duemila. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
249. Kington, Tom (1 October 2009). "Mafia's influence hovers over 13 m Italians, says report". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 8 September 2013. Retrieved 5 May 2010.
250. ANSA (14 March 2011). "Italy: Anti-mafia police arrest 35 suspects in northern Lombardy region". adnkronos.com. Mafia Today. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
251. "Crime Statistics – Murders (per capita) (more recent) by country". NationMaster.com. Archived from the original on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
252. ^ Reece Walters (2013). "Eco Mafia and Environmental Crime". In Kerry Carrington; Matthew Ball; Erin O'Brien; Juan Tauri (eds.). Crime, Justice and Social Democracy. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 286. doi:10.1057/9781137008695_19. ISBN 978-1-349-43575-3. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |work= ignored (help)
253. ^ Paulo Buonanno; Giovanni Mastrobuoni (2013). Philip J. Cook; Stephen Machin; Olivier Marie; Giovanni Mastrobuoni (eds.). Centralized versus Decentralized Police Hiring in Italy and the United States. MIT Press. p. 193. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262019613.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-262-01961-3. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |work= ignored (help)
254. "Country Ranking - Rainbow Europe". rainbow-europe.org. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 28 October 2021.
255. "The Struggle against Torture in Italy – The Failure of the Italian Law - English". www.menschenrechte.org. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
256. "Missioni/Attivita' Internazionali DAL 1 October 2013 AL 31 December 2013 – Situazione AL 11 December 2013" (PDF). Italian Ministry of Defence. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
257. "Italian soldiers leave for Lebanon" Archived 2 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine Corriere della Sera, 30 August 2006
258. "Italy donates 60 million euros to PA". Ma'an News Agency. 4 September 2013. Archived from the original on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.
259. "Law n°226 of August 23, 2004". Camera.it. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
260. "The Military Balance 2010", pp. 141–145. International Institute for Strategic Studies, 3 February 2010.
261. Italian Ministry of Defence. "Nota aggiuntiva allo stato di previsione per la Difesa per l'anno 2009" (PDF) (in Italian). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 May 2011. Retrieved 11 July 2014.
262. Hans M. Kristensen / Natural Resources Defense Council (2005). "NRDC: U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe – part 1" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 January 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
263. "LA MARINA MILITARE OGGI" (PDF) (in Italian). Retrieved 28 April 2022.
264. "The Carabinieri Force is linked to the Ministry of Defence". Carabinieri. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2010.
265. "Regioni italiane" (in Italian). Retrieved 30 April 2022.
266. "Select Country or Country Groups". Archived from the original on 22 October 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
267. "Gross domestic product (2015)" (PDF). The World Bank: World Development Indicators database. World Bank. 28 April 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2017. Retrieved 17 May 2017.
268. Sensenbrenner, Frank; Arcelli, Angelo Federico. "Italy's Economy Is Much Stronger Than It Seems". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 6 December 2014. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
269. Dadush, Uri. "Is the Italian Economy on the Mend?". Carnegie Europe. Archived from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
270. "Doing Business in Italy: 2014 Country Commercial Guide for U.S. Companies" (PDF). United States Commercial Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2014. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
271. "The World Health Organization's ranking of the world's health systems". Photius.com. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
272. "The Global Creativity Index 2011" (PDF). Martin Prosperity Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 September 2014. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
273. Aksoy, M. Ataman; Ng, Francis. "The Evolution of Agricultural Trade Flows" (PDF). The World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
274. Pisa, Nick (12 June 2011). "Italy overtakes France to become world's largest wine producer". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
275. "Automotive Market Sector Profile – Italy" (PDF). The Canadian Trade Commissioner Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
276. "Data & Trends of the European Food and Drink Industry 2013–2014" (PDF). FoodDrinkEurope. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 December 2014. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
277. "Italy fashion industry back to growth in 2014". Reuters. 10 January 2014. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
278. "Manufacturing, value added (current US$) Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine". accessed on 17 May 2017.
279. "Knowledge Economy Forum 2008: Innovative Small And Medium Enterprises Are Key To Europe & Central Asian Growth". The World Bank. 19 May 2005. Archived from the original on 23 June 2008. Retrieved 17 June 2008.
280. ^ "The World Factbook". CIA. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
281. "Milan, Italy's Industrial and Financial Capital". 18 May 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
282. "Auto: settore da 144mila imprese in Italia e 117 mld fatturato". adnkronos.com. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
283. "Country Profiles – Italy". acea.thisconnect.com. Archived from the original on 11 February 2008. Retrieved 9 February 2008.
284. "Global Auto Market 2021. General Motors Is The Only Group To Report Double-digit Losses". Retrieved 27 May 2022.
285. Haigh, Robert (18 February 2014). "Ferrari – The World's Most Powerful Brand". Brand Finance. Archived from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
286. "Italy's fourth-biggest bank returns to the stockmarket". The Economist. 26 October 2017.
287. "The Power of Cooperation – Cooperatives Europe key statistics 2015" (PDF). Cooperatives Europe. April 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
288. "In Val d'Agri with Upstream activities". Eni. Archived from the original on 16 May 2022. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
289. "Italy, the economy: Resources and power". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 3 February 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
290. Andrews, Edmund L. (1 January 2002). "Germans Say Goodbye to the Mark, a Symbol of Strength and Unity". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
291. Taylor Martin, Susan (28 December 1998). "On Jan. 1, out of many arises one Euro". St. Petersburg Times. p. National, 1.A.
292. Orsi, Roberto (23 April 2013). "The Quiet Collapse of the Italian Economy". The London School of Economics. Archived from the original on 19 November 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
293. Nicholas Crafts, Gianni Toniolo (1996). Economic growth in Europe since 1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 428. ISBN 978-0-521-49627-8.
294. Balcerowicz, Leszek. "Economic Growth in the European Union" (PDF). The Lisbon Council. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 8 October 2014.
295. ""Secular stagnation" in graphics". The Economist. Archived from the original on 23 November 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
296. "Debito pubblico oltre 2.300 miliardi e all'estero non lo comprano". 15 May 2018. Archived from the original on 21 February 2020. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
297. "Government debt increased to 93.9% of GDP in euro area and to 88.0% in EU28" (PDF). Eurostat. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
298. "Could Italy Be Better Off than its Peers?". CNBC. 18 May 2010. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
299. "Household debt and the OECD's surveillance of member states" (PDF). OECD Economics Department. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2015. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
300. "Oh for a new risorgimento". The Economist. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
301. "Comune per Comune, ecco la mappa navigabile dei redditi dichiarati in Italia". www.lastampa.it. Archived from the original on 5 April 2015. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
302. "GDP per capita at regional level" (PDF). Istat. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
303. "Euro area unemployment rate at 11%". Eurostat. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
304. Istat. "Employment and unemployment: second quarter 2017" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
305. "Youth unemployment rate in EU member states as of March 2018". Statista.
306. "L'Italia è il maggiore produttore di vino" (in Italian). 25 November 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
307. "L'Italia è il paese con più vitigni autoctoni al mondo" (in Italian). 3 June 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
308. ^ "Censimento Agricoltura 2010". ISTAT. 24 October 2010. Archived from the original on 13 February 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
309. "OIV report on the State of the vitiviniculture world market". news.reseau-concept.net. Réseau-CONCEPT. 2010. Archived from the original (PowerPoint presentation) on 28 July 2011.
310. "Frecciarossa 1000 in Figures". Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane. Archived from the original on 18 December 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
311. Lenarduzzi, Thea (30 January 2016). "The motorway that built Italy: Piero Puricelli's masterpiece". The Independent. Retrieved 12 May 2022.
312. ^ European Commission. "Panorama of Transport" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 April 2009. Retrieved 3 May 2009.
313. "Trasporto aereo in Italia (PDF)". ISTAT. 7 January 2013. Retrieved 5 August 2013.
314. "Aeroporti in Italia: quanti sono? Elenco per regione" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 17 November 2022. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
315. Buckley, Julia (18 October 2021). "Italy reveals its new national airline". CNN. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
316. Villamizar, Helwing (15 October 2021). "Italian Flag Carrier ITA Airways Is Born". Airways Magazine. Archived from the original on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
317. Marcus Hernig: Die Renaissance der Seidenstraße (2018) pp 112.
318. Bernhard Simon: Can The New Silk Road Compete With The Maritime Silk Road? in The Maritime Executive, 1 January 2020.
319. Chazizam, M. (2018). The Chinese Maritime Silk Road Initiative: The Role of the Mediterranean. Mediterranean Quarterly, 29(2), 54–69.
320. Guido Santevecchi: Di Maio e la Via della Seta: «Faremo i conti nel 2020», siglato accordo su Trieste in Corriere della Sera: 5. November 2019.
321. Linda Vierecke, Elisabetta Galla "Triest und die neue Seidenstraße" In: Deutsche Welle, 8 December 2020.
322. "HHLA PLT Italy starting on schedule | Hellenic Shipping News Worldwide". www.hellenicshippingnews.com.
323. ^ "Il rapporto Comuni Rinnovabili 2015". Comuni Rinnovabili (in Italian). Legambiente. 18 May 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
324. ^ "Rapporto Statistico sugli Impianti a fonti rinnovabili". Gestore dei Servizi Energetici. 19 December 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
325. "Summary for Eni SpA". Retrieved 1 July 2020.
326. "The Italian Montalto di Castro and Rovigo PV plants". www.solarserver.com. Archived from the original on 9 May 2018. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
327. "Inventario delle risorse geotermiche nazionali". UNMIG. 2011. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 14 September 2011.
328. ^ Singer, C. (1941). A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century. Clarendon Press. p. 217.
329. ^ Whitehouse, D. (2009). Renaissance Genius: Galileo Galilei & His Legacy to Modern Science. Sterling Publishing. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-4027-6977-1.
330. ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-595-36877-8.
331. ^ Thomas Hobbes: Critical Assessments, Volume 1. Preston King. 1993. p. 59
332. ^ Disraeli, I. (1835). Curiosities of Literature. W. Pearson & Company. p. 371.
333. ^ "Enrico Fermi, architect of the nuclear age, dies". Autumn 1954. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015.
334. ^ "Enrico Fermi Dead at 53; Architect of Atomic Bomb". The New York Times. 29 November 1954. Archived from the original on 14 March 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
335. "Cardano, Gerolamo", Dizionario enciclopedico italiano (in Italian), vol. II, Treccani, 1970, p. 777
336. Lucia Orlando, "Physics in the 1930s: Jewish Physicists' Contribution to the Realization of the" New Tasks" of Physics in Italy." Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences (1998): 141–181. JSTOR 27757806
337. Wheen, Andrew. Dot-Dash to Dot.com: How Modern Telecommunications Evolved from the Telegraph to the Internet. Archived 29 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Springer, 2010. p. 45. Web. 23 September 2011.
338. Cleveland, Cutler (Lead Author); Saundry, Peter (Topic Editor). Meucci, Antonio. Archived 26 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopedia of Earth, 2006. Web. 22 July 2012.
339. "Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator". The Old Calculator Web Museum. technically, the machine was a programmable calculator, not a computer.
340. "2008/107/1 Computer, Programma 101, and documents (3), plastic / metal / paper / electronic components, hardware architect Pier Giorgio Perotto, designed by Mario Bellini, made by Olivetti, Italy, 1965–1971". www.powerhousemuseum.com. Retrieved 20 March 2016.
341. "Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator". The Old Calculator Web Museum. It appears that the Mathatronics Mathatron calculator preceeded [sic] the Programma 101 to market.
342. "DE GIORGI, Ennio" (in Italian). Retrieved 31 December 2021.
343. "I Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso" (in Italian). Retrieved 15 January 2018.
344. G. Bar "Trieste, è record europeo di ricercatori: 37 ogni mille abitanti. Più della Finlandia", In: il Fatto Quotidiano, 26 April 2018.
345. Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha; León, Lorena Rivera; World Intellectual Property Organization (2022). Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition. World Intellectual Property Organization. doi:10.34667/tind.46596. ISBN 9789280534320. Retrieved 16 November 2022. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
346. "Science and Technology Parks in Italy". Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
347. Alampi, Matteo (December 2007). "Underdevelopment in Southern Italy: Traditional Setbacks and Modern Solutions". Fisher Digital Publications – via International Studies Masters.
348. Di Pietro, Giorgio (June 2021). "Changes in Italy's education‐related digital divide". Economic Affairs. 41 (2): 252–270. doi:10.1111/ecaf.12471. ISSN 0265-0665. S2CID 237848271.
349. "La classifica dei 30 musei più visitati in Italia". 3 March 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2022.
350. "Foreign tourist numbers in Italy head towards new record" Archived 1 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved 21 May 2017.
351. ^ "Grand Tour" (in Italian). Retrieved 6 May 2022.
352. "Italy on the Grand Tour (Getty Exhibitions)". Retrieved 9 June 2015.
353. "International tourism, number of arrivals". World Tourism Organization. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
354. "Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2015 Italy" (PDF). World Travel and Tourism Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
355. "In Italia 11mila matrimoni stranieri, un turismo da 599 milioni" (in Italian). February 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
356. "10 Migliori destinazioni italiane per vita notturna" (in Italian). Retrieved 28 December 2021.
357. "Turismo naturalistico: cos'è e dove praticarlo in Italia" (in Italian). Retrieved 5 May 2022.
358. "Viaggiare in Italia: giro turistico" (in Italian). Retrieved 31 December 2021.
359. "Il benessere genera il 5,3% del Pil mondiale: e in Italia è boom per Spa e turismo "wellness"" (in Italian). 11 October 2018. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
360. "Turismo religioso, in Italia 3 milioni di pellegrini l'anno e 8,6 milioni di presenze" (in Italian). 24 July 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2022.
361. "Il meglio per il turismo subacqueo in Italia" (in Italian). 27 March 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
362. "VACANZE IN MONTAGNA IN ITALIA: IN INVERNO E IN ESTATE" (in Italian). 30 July 2017. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
363. "Il turismo balneare" (in Italian). 14 February 2018. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
364. "Crociere, Cemar: 8,8 milioni di passeggeri nei porti italiani" (in Italian). 27 April 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
365. "Number of nights spent in tourist accommodation establishments in the top 20 EU-28 tourist regions, by NUTS 2 regions, 2015 (million nights spent) RYB17 – Statistics Explained". ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 17 April 2022.
366. "Ranking the 30 Most-Visited Cities in the World". TravelPulse.
367. "The World Heritage Convention". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
368. "Italy". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2019.
369. ^ "Turismo" (PDF) (in Italian). p. 3. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
370. "Indicatori demografici". www.istat.it (in Italian). 8 April 2022. Retrieved 27 July 2022.
371. EUROSTAT. "Ageing characterises the demographic perspectives of the European societies – Issue number 72/2008" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 January 2009. Retrieved 28 April 2009.
372. ISTAT. "Crude birth rates, mortality rates and marriage rates 2005–2008" (PDF) (in Italian). Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 10 May 2009.
373. ISTAT. "Average number of children born per woman 2005–2008" (PDF) (in Italian). Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 3 May 2009.
374. Max Roser (2014), "Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries", Our World In Data, Gapminder Foundation, archived from the original on 7 August 2018, retrieved 7 May 2019
375. "Previsioni della popolazione, 2011–2065, dati al 1° gennaio". Demo.istat.it. Archived from the original on 6 March 2013. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
376. "Causes of the Italian mass emigration". ThinkQuest Library. 15 August 1999. Archived from the original on 1 July 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2014.
377. Favero, Luigi e Tassello, Graziano. Cent'anni di emigrazione italiana (1861–1961) Introduction
378. "Statistiche del Ministero dell'Interno". Archived from the original on 27 February 2010.
379. Lee, Adam (3 April 2006). "Unos 20 millones de personas que viven en la Argentina tienen algún grado de descendencia italiana" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 11 June 2008. Retrieved 27 June 2008.
380. Consulta Nazionale Emigrazione. Progetto ITENETs – "Gli italiani in Brasile"; pp. 11, 19 Archived 12 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10 September 2008.
381. "Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Uruguay, provinces and territories – 20% sample data". Archived from the original on 11 May 2011.
382. Santander Laya-Garrido, Alfonso. Los Italianos forjadores de la nacionalidad y del desarrollo economico en Venezuela. Editorial Vadell. Valencia, 1978
383. American FactFinder, United States Census Bureau. "U.S. Census Bureau – Selected Population Profile in the United States". American FactFinder, United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 10 February 2020. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
384. "Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories – 20% sample data". 2 April 2008. Archived from the original on 1 November 2009.
385. "20680-Ancestry by Country of Birth of Parents – Time Series Statistics (2001, 2006 Census Years) – Australia". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 27 June 2007. Archived from the original on 1 October 2007. Retrieved 30 December 2008.
386. "The Cambridge survey of world migration Archived 13 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine". Robin Cohen (1995). Cambridge University Press. p. 143. ISBN 0-521-44405-5
387. "Population on 1 January by sex, country of birth and broad group of citizenship". Retrieved 28 August 2023.
388. "Immigrants.Stat". Istat. Archived from the original on 9 July 2017. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
389. "National demographic balance 2016". Istat. Retrieved 15 June 2017.
390. Elisabeth Rosenthal, "Italy cracks down on illegal immigration Archived 21 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine". The Boston Globe. 16 May 2008.
391. Allen, Beverly (1997). Revisioning Italy national identity and global culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8166-2727-1.
392. "Milan police in Chinatown clash Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine". BBC News. 13 April 2007.
393. "EUROPE: Home to Roma, And No Place for Them". IPS ipsnews.net. Archived 5 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
394. "Balkan Investigative Reporting Network". Birn.eu.com. 8 November 2007. Archived from the original on 29 October 2008. Retrieved 4 November 2008.
395. Mitrica, Mihai Un milion de romani s-au mutat in Italia ("One million Romanians have moved to Italy"). Evenimentul Zilei, 31 October 2005. Visited 11 April 2006.
396. "XXIX Rapporto Immigrazione 2020" (PDF) (in Italian). Retrieved 31 December 2021.
397. ^ "Legge 15 Dicembre 1999, n. 482 "Norme in materia di tutela delle minoranze linguistiche storiche" pubblicata nella Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 297 del 20 dicembre 1999". Italian Parliament. Archived from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2014.
398. Statuto Speciale per il Trentino-Alto Adige, Art. 99
399. Italian language Archived 30 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine Ethnologue.com
400. "Eurobarometer – Europeans and their languages" (485 KB). February 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 April 2011.
401. Nationalencyklopedin "Världens 100 största språk 2007" The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007
402. Italian language Archived 2 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine University of Leicester
403. "UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger". www.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 18 December 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
404. "Italian language". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 November 2008. Archived from the original on 29 November 2009. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
405. L.cost. 26 febbraio 1948, n. 4, Statuto speciale per la Valle d'Aosta
406. L.cost. 26 febbraio 1948, n. 5, Statuto speciale per il Trentino-Alto Adige
407. L. cost. 31 gennaio 1963, n. 1, Statuto speciale della Regione Friuli Venezia Giulia
408. "Ready for Ratification". European Centre for Minority Issues. Archived from the original on 3 January 2018.
409. "Linguistic diversity among foreign citizens in Italy". Italian National Institute of Statistics. 24 July 2014. Archived from the original on 30 July 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
410. ^ Dell'orto, Giovanna (5 October 2023). "The Nones: Italy". Associated Press. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
411. ^ Dell'orto, Giovanna (5 October 2023). "From cradle to casket, life for Italians changes as Catholic faith loses relevance". AP News. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
412. "The Global Religious Landscape" (PDF). Pewforum.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2017. Retrieved 2 October 2015.
413. "The Global Catholic Population". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 13 February 2013.
414. Leustean, Lucian N. (2014). Eastern Christianity and Politics in the Twenty-First Century. Routledge. p. 723. ISBN 978-0-415-68490-3.
415. Dawidowicz, Lucy S. (1986). The war against the Jews, 1933–1945. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-34302-1. p. 403
416. "The Jewish Community of Italy (Unione delle Comunita Ebraiche Italiane)". The European Jewish Congress. Archived from the original on 13 March 2013. Retrieved 25 August 2014.
417. "Global Religion - Religious Beliefs Across the World" (PDF). Ipsos. May 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2023. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
418. Text taken directly from "Country Profile: Vatican City State". Archived from the original on 31 December 2010. Retrieved 5 February 2016. (viewed on 14 December 2011), on the website of the British Foreign & Commonwealth Office.
419. "What is the Difference Between the Vatican City and the Holy See?". 5 January 2021.
420. "Eurispes, risultati del primo Rapporto di ricerca su "L'Induismo in Italia"" (in Italian). 4 November 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
421. "NRI Sikhs in Italy". Nriinternet.com. 15 November 2004. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
422. "Catholicism No Longer Italy's State Religion". Sun Sentinel. 4 June 1985. Archived from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
423. "Italy: Islam denied income tax revenue – Adnkronos Religion". Adnkronos.com. 7 April 2003. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
424. Camera dei deputati Dossier BI0350 Archived 27 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Documenti.camera.it (10 March 1998). Retrieved on 12 July 2013.
425. "Law 27 December 2007, n.296". Italian Parliament. Archived from the original on 6 December 2012. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
426. "| Human Development Reports" (PDF). Hdr.undp.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
427. ^ "PISA 2018 results". www.oecd.org. Retrieved 6 April 2021.
428. "Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Italy report" (PDF).
429. "The literacy divide: territorial differences in the Italian education system" (PDF). Parthenope University of Naples. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
430. "Number of top-ranked universities by country in Europe". jakubmarian.com. 2019.
431. Nuria Sanz, Sjur Bergan: "The heritage of European universities", 2nd edition, Higher Education Series No. 7, Council of Europe, 2006, , p. 136
432. "Censis, la classifica delle università: Bologna ancora prima". 3 July 2017.
433. "Academic Ranking of World Universities 2015". Shanghai Ranking Consultancy. 2015. Archived from the original on 30 October 2015. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
434. Duarte, A.; Fernandes, J.; Bernardes, J.; Miguel, G. (2016). "Citrus as a Component of the Mediterranean Diet". Journal of Spatial and Organizational Dynamics – JSOD. 4: 289–304.
435. "World Health Statistics 2016: Monitoring health for the SDGs Annex B: tables of health statistics by country, WHO region and globally". World Health Organization. 2016. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
436. "Global Prevalence of Adult Obesity" (PDF). International Obesity Taskforce. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2008.
437. Dinu, M; Pagliai, G; Casini, A; Sofi, F (10 May 2017). "Mediterranean diet and multiple health outcomes: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies and randomised trials". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 72 (1): 30–43. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2017.58. hdl:2158/1081996. PMID 28488692. S2CID 7702206.
438. "OECD Health Statistics 2014 How Does Italy Compare?" (PDF). OECD. 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015.
439. "Smoking Ban Begins in Italy | Europe | DW.COM | 10 January 2005". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 21 June 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2010.
440. "UNESCO Culture Sector, Eighth Session of the Intergovernmental Committee (8.COM) – from 2 to 7 December 2013". Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
441. "UNESCO – Culture – Intangible Heritage – Lists & Register – Inscribed Elements – Mediterranean Diet". Archived from the original on 15 April 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
442. "Italy – Health". Dev.prenhall.com. Archived from the original on 1 July 2009. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
443. "Total health expenditure as share of GDP in Italy from 2005 to 2020". Retrieved 12 June 2022.
444. "The World Health Organization's ranking of the world's health systems". Photius.com. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
445. "Italy's Struggling Economy Has World's Healthiest People". Bloomberg.com. 20 March 2017. Retrieved 9 December 2020.
446. Italy has been described as a "cultural superpower" by Arab news, the Washington Post, The Australian, the Italian consul general in San Francisco Archived 27 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine, the former Foreign Affairs Minister Giulio Terzi and the U.S. President Barack Obama Archived 26 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
447. Killinger, Charles (2005). Culture and customs of Italy (1. publ. ed.). Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-313-32489-5.
448. Cole, Alison (1995). Virtue and magnificence: art of the Italian Renaissance courts. New York: H.N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-2733-9.
449. Architecture in Italy Archived 15 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine, ItalyTravel.com
450. Sear, Frank. Roman architecture. Cornell University Press, 1983. p. 10. Web. 23 September 2011.
451. Italy Architecture: Early Christian and Byzanthine Archived 28 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine, ItalyTravel.com
452. Italy Architecture: Romanesque Archived 28 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine, ItalyTravel.com
453. Campbell, Stephen J; Cole, Michael Wayne (2012). Italian Renaissance Art. New York: Thames & Hudson Inc. pp. 95–97.
454. Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
455. R. De Fusco, A thousand years of architecture in Europe, pg. 443.
456. Hersey, George (2001). Architecture and Geometry in the Age of the Baroque. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 119. ISBN 0-226-32784-1.
457. Italy Architecture: Neoclassicism Archived 28 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine, ItalyTravel.com
458. "Renzo Piano". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
459. "Roman Painting". art-and-archaeology.com. Archived from the original on 26 July 2013.
460. "Roman Wall Painting". accd.edu. Archived from the original on 19 March 2007.
461. Duckworth, George Eckel. The nature of Roman comedy: a study in popular entertainment. University of Oklahoma Press, 1994. p. 3. Web. 15 October 2011.
462. Poetry and Drama: Literary Terms and Concepts. The Rosen Publishing Group. 2011. ISBN 978-1-61530-490-5. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
463. Brand, Peter; Pertile, Lino, eds. (1999). "2 – Poetry. Francis of Assisi (pp. 5ff.)". The Cambridge History of Italian Literature. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66622-0. Archived from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2015.
464. ^ Bloom, Harold (1994). The Western Canon. Harcourt Brace. ISBN 9780151957477. See also Western canon for other "canons" that include the Divine Comedy.
465. Ernest Hatch Wilkins, The invention of the sonnet, and other studies in Italian literature (Rome: Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, 1959), 11–39
466. "Giovanni Boccaccio: The Decameron.". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 19 December 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
467. Steven Swann Jones, The Fairy Tale: The Magic Mirror of Imagination, Twayne Publishers, New York, 1995, ISBN 0-8057-0950-9, p. 38
468. Bottigheimer 2012a, 7; Waters 1894, xii; Zipes 2015, 599.
469. Opie, Iona; Opie, Peter (1974), The Classic Fairy Tales, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-211559-1 See p. 20. The claim for earliest fairy-tale is still debated, see for example Jan M. Ziolkowski, Fairy tales from before fairy tales: the medieval Latin past of wonderful lies, University of Michigan Press, 2007. Ziolkowski examines Egbert of Liège's Latin beast poem Fecunda natis (The Richly Laden Ship, c. 1022/24), the earliest known version of "Little Red Riding Hood". Further info: Little Red Pentecostal, Peter J. Leithart, 9 July 2007.
470. ^ Giovanni Gasparini. La corsa di Pinocchio. Milano, Vita e Pensiero, 1997. p. 117. ISBN 88-343-4889-3
471. "Pinocchio: Carlo Collodi – Children's Literature Review". Encyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on 3 October 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
472. "Alessandro Manzoni | Italian author". Encyclopedia Britannica. 18 May 2023.
473. Gaetana Marrone; Paolo Puppa (2006). Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies. Routledge. p. 1654. ISBN 978-1-135-45530-9.
474. The 20th-Century art book (Reprinted. ed.). dsdLondon: Phaidon Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-7148-3542-6.
475. "All Nobel Prizes in Literature". Nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on 29 May 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
476. ^ Garin, Eugenio (2008). History of Italian Philosophy. VIBS. ISBN 9789042023215.
477. Herodotus. The Histories. Penguin Classics. p. 226.
478. "St. Thomas Aquinas | Biography, Philosophy, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 20 January 2020.
479. Gatti, Hilary. Giordano Bruno and Renaissance Science: Broken Lives and Organizational Power. Cornell University Press, 2002, 1, ISBN 0-801-48785-4
480. ^ Hostettler, John (2011). Cesare Beccaria: The Genius of 'On Crimes and Punishments'. Hampshire: Waterside Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-1904380634.
481. ^ "Introduction to Montessori Method". American Montessori Society.
482. Blair, Peter. "Reason and Faith: The Thought of Thomas Aquinas". The Dartmouth Apologia. Archived from the original on 13 September 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
483. Moschovitis Group Inc, Christian D. Von Dehsen and Scott L. Harris, Philosophers and religious leaders, (The Oryx Press, 1999), 117.
484. ^ "The Enlightenment throughout Europe". International World History Project. Archived from the original on 23 January 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
485. ^ "History of Philosophy 70". maritain.nd.edu. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
486. Scarangello, Anthony (1964). "Major Catholic-Liberal Educational Philosophers of the Italian Risorgimento". History of Education Quarterly. 4 (4): 232–250. doi:10.2307/367499. JSTOR 367499. S2CID 147563567.
487. Pernicone, Nunzio (2009). Italian Anarchism 1864–1892. AK Press. pp. 111–113.
488. Balestrini, Nanni; Moroni, Primo (1997). L'orda d'oro 1968–1977. La grande ondata rivoluzionaria e creativa, politica ed esistenziale. SugarCo. ISBN 88-07-81462-5.
489. ^ "The Theatre and its history". Teatro di San Carlo's official website. 23 December 2013.
490. "Storia del Teatro nelle città d'Italia" (in Italian). Retrieved 27 July 2022.
491. "Storia del teatro: lo spazio scenico in Toscana" (in Italian). Retrieved 28 July 2022.
492. Of this second root Dario Fo he speaks of a true alternative culture to the official one: although widespread as an idea, some scholars such as Giovanni Antonucci [it] do not agree in considering it as such. In this regard, see Antonucci, Giovanni (1995). Storia del teatro italiano (in Italian). Newton Compton Editori. pp. 10–14. ISBN 978-8879839747.
493. Antonucci, Giovanni (1995). Storia del teatro italiano (in Italian). Newton Compton Editori. p. 18. ISBN 978-8879839747.
494. Chaffee, Judith; Crick, Olly (2015). The Routledge Companion to Commedia Dell'Arte. London and New York: Rutledge Taylor and Francis Group. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-415-74506-2.
495. Katritzky, M. A. (2006). The Art of Commedia: A Study in the Commedia dell'arte 1560–1620 with Special Reference to the Visual Records. New York: Editions Rodopi. p. 82. ISBN 978-90-420-1798-6.
496. Rudlin, John; Crick, Oliver (2001). Commedia dell'arte: A Handbook for Troupes. London: Routledge. ISBN 041-520-408-9.
497. "Compagnia dei Gelosi". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
498. Mitchell, Tony (1999). Dario Fo: People's Court Jester (Updated and Expanded). London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-73320-3.
499. Scuderi, Antonio (2011). Dario Fo: Framing, Festival, and the Folkloric Imagination. Lanham (Md.): Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739151112.
500. "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1997". www.nobelprize.org. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
501. Giacomo Oreglia (2002). Commedia dell'arte. Ordfront. ISBN 91-7324-602-6
502. "The Ballet". metmuseum.org.
503. "Andros on Ballet – Catherine Medici De". michaelminn.net. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008.
504. Kuzmick Hansell, Kathleen (1980). Opera and Ballet at the Regio Ducal Teatro of Milan, 1771-1776: A Musical and Social History. Vol. I. University of California. p. 200.
505. Erlich, Cyril (1990). The Piano: A History. Oxford University Press, US; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0-19-816171-4.
506. Allen, Edward Heron (1914). Violin-making, as it was and is: Being a Historical, Theoretical, and Practical Treatise on the Science and Art of Violin-making, for the Use of Violin Makers and Players, Amateur and Professional. Preceded by An Essay on the Violin and Its Position as a Musical Instrument. E. Howe. Accessed 5 September 2015.
507. "Obituary: Luciano Pavarotti". The Times. London. 6 September 2007. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008.
508. ^ Kimbell, David R.B. (1994). Italian Opera. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46643-1. Retrieved 20 December 2009.
509. Keller, Catalano and Colicci (25 September 2017). Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Routledge. pp. 604–625. ISBN 978-1-351-54426-9.
510. Sisario, Ben (3 October 2012). "A Roman Rapper Comes to New York, Where He Can Get Real". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
511. ^ "This record was a collaboration between Philip Oakey, the big-voiced lead singer of the techno-pop band the Human League, and Giorgio Moroder, the Italian-born father of disco who spent the '80s writing synth-based pop and film music." Evan Cater. "Philip Oakey & Giorgio Moroder: Overview". AllMusic. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
512. McDonnell, John (1 September 2008). "Scene and heard: Italo-disco". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
513. Yiorgos Kasapoglou (27 February 2007). "Sanremo Music Festival kicks off tonight". www.esctoday.com. Retrieved 18 August 2011.
514. ^ "Cinecittà, c'è l'accordo per espandere gli Studios italiani" (in Italian). 30 December 2021. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
515. "Federico Fellini, i 10 migliori film per conoscere il grande regista" (in Italian). 20 January 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
516. "L'œuvre cinématographique des frères Lumière - Pays: Italie" (in French). Archived from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
517. "Il Cinema Ritrovato - Italia 1896 - Grand Tour Italiano" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
518. "26 febbraio 1896 - Papa Leone XIII filmato Fratelli Lumière" (in Italian). Retrieved 1 January 2022.
519. ^ "Cinematografia", Dizionario enciclopedico italiano (in Italian), vol. III, Treccani, 1970, p. 226
520. Gian Piero Brunetta (2002). Storia del cinema mondiale (in Italian). Vol. III. Einaudi. p. 38. ISBN 978-88-06-14528-6.
521. Andrea Fioravanti (2006). La "storia" senza storia. Racconti del passato tra letteratura, cinema e televisione (in Italian). Morlacchi Editore. p. 121. ISBN 978-88-6074-066-3.
522. Robert K. Klepper (1999). Silent Films, 1877-1996: A Critical Guide to 646 Movies. McFarland. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-7864-0595-4.
523. Patrick Robertson (1991). Guinness Book of Movie Facts and Feats. Abbeville Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-1-55859-236-0.
524. John Alberti (2014). Screen Ages: A Survey of American Cinema. Routledge. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-317-65028-7.
525. "Il cinema delle avanguardie" (in Italian). 30 September 2017. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
526. Katz, Ephraim (2001), "Italy", The Film Encyclopedia, HarperResource, pp. 682–685, ISBN 978-0060742140
527. Brunetta, Gian Piero (2002). Storia del cinema mondiale (in Italian). Vol. III. Einaudi. pp. 357–359. ISBN 978-88-06-14528-6.
528. "The Cinema Under Mussolini". Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. Archived from the original on 31 July 2010. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
529. "STORIA 'POCONORMALE' DEL CINEMA: ITALIA ANNI '80, IL DECLINO" (in Italian). Retrieved 1 January 2022.
530. Ebert, Roger. "The Bicycle Thief / Bicycle Thieves (1949)". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on 27 February 2009. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
531. "The 25 Most Influential Directors of All Time". MovieMaker Magazine. 7 July 2002. Archived from the original on 11 December 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
532. "Italian Neorealism – Explore – The Criterion Collection". Criterion.com. Archived from the original on 18 September 2011. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
533. "Western all'italiana" (in Italian). Retrieved 1 January 2022.
534. "Tarantino e i film italiani degli anni settanta" (in Italian). Retrieved 1 January 2022.
535. "Cannes 2013. La grande bellezza". Stanze di Cinema (in Italian). 21 May 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
536. Bondanella, Peter E. (2001). Italian Cinema: From Neorealism to the Present. Continuum. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8264-1247-8.
537. "Oscar 2022: Paolo Sorrentino e gli altri candidati come miglior film internazionale" (in Italian). 26 October 2021. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
538. "10 film italiani che hanno fatto la storia del Festival di Cannes" (in Italian). 13 May 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
539. "I film italiani vincitori del Leone d'Oro al Festival di Venezia" (in Italian). 28 August 2018. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
540. "Film italiani vincitori Orso d'Oro di Berlino" (in Italian). Retrieved 1 January 2022.
541. "Alberto Sordi: "La grande guerra"" (in Italian). Retrieved 22 June 2023.
542. Wilson, Bill (10 March 2014). "BBC News – Italian football counts cost of stagnation". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
543. Hamil, Sean; Chadwick, Simon (2010). Managing football: an international perspective (1st ed., dodr. ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 285. ISBN 978-1-85617-544-9.
544. "Previous FIFA World Cups". FIFA.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2011.
545. "Le squadre più tifate al mondo: classifica e numero di fan" (in Italian). Retrieved 4 January 2022.
546. ^ "Sport più seguiti: la (forse) sorprendente classifica mondiale" (in Italian). 15 March 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
547. "Basket Eurolega, l'albo d'oro delle squadre più forti e titolate d'Europa" (in Italian). July 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
548. "Union Cycliste Internationale". Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2017.
549. Foot, John (2012). Pedalare! Pedalare!: a history of Italian cycling. London: Bloomsbury. p. 312. ISBN 978-1-4088-2219-7.
550. Hall, James (23 November 2012). "Italy is best value skiing country, report finds". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 3 October 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2013.
551. "Il tennis è il quarto sport in Italia per numero di praticanti". Federazione Italiana Tennis. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2013.
552. "Internazionali d'Italia di Tennis – Roma 2021" (in Italian). Retrieved 4 January 2022.
553. "Enzo Ferrari" (in Italian). Retrieved 4 January 2022.
554. "GP d'Italia: albo d'oro" (in Italian). 3 September 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
555. "F1 Record e statistiche GP Italia: la marea è più rossa che mai" (in Italian). 27 August 2018. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
556. "GP Italia: a Monza tra storia e passione" (in Italian). 7 September 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
557. "L'Italia che vince le corse" (in Italian). 5 October 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
558. Elio Trifari. "Che sorpresa: Italia presente a tutti i Giochi" (in Italian). Retrieved 4 January 2022.
559. "New York Takes Top Global Fashion Capital Title from London, edging past Paris". Languagemonitor.com. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
560. Press, Debbie (2000). Your Modeling Career: You Don't Have to Be a Superstar to Succeed. Allworth Press. ISBN 978-1-58115-045-2.
561. Cardini, Tiziana (28 October 2020). "Get to Know the Young Winners of the 2020 International Talent Support Awards". Vogue.
562. Miller (2005) p. 486
563. ^ Insight Guides (2004) p. 220
564. "Design City Milan". Wiley. Archived from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
565. "Frieze Magazine – Archive – Milan and Turin". Frieze. Archived from the original on 10 January 2010. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
566. "Italian Cooking: History of Food and Cooking in Rome and Lazio Region, Papal Influence, Jewish Influence, The Essence of Roman Italian Cooking". Inmamaskitchen.com. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
567. "The Making of Italian Food...From the Beginning". Epicurean.com. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
568. Del Conte, 11–21.
569. Related Articles (2 January 2009). "Italian cuisine – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Archived from the original on 16 July 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
570. "Italian Food – Italy's Regional Dishes & Cuisine". Indigoguide.com. Archived from the original on 2 January 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
571. "Regional Italian Cuisine". Rusticocooking.com. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
572. "Which country has the best food?". CNN. 6 January 2013. Archived from the original on 29 June 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
573. Freeman, Nancy (2 March 2007). "American Food, Cuisine". Sallybernstein.com. Archived from the original on 18 April 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2010.
574. The Silver Spoon ISBN 88-7212-223-6, 1997 ed.
575. Mario Batali Simple Italian Food: Recipes from My Two Villages (1998), ISBN 0-609-60300-0
576. "Most Americans Have Dined Out in the Past Month and, Among Type of Cuisine, American Food is Tops Followed by Italian" (PDF). Harris interactive. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 May 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
577. Kazmin, Amy (26 March 2013). "A taste for Italian in New Delhi". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
578. Keane, John. "Italy leads the way with protected products under EU schemes". Bord Bia. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
579. Marshall, Lee (30 September 2009). "Italian coffee culture: a guide". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
580. Jewkes, Stephen (13 October 2012). "World's first museum about gelato culture opens in Italy". Times Colonist. Archived from the original on 16 October 2013. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
581. Squires, Nick (23 August 2013). "Tiramisu claimed by Treviso". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
582. "Mangiare all'italiana" (in Italian). Retrieved 12 November 2021.
583. "Colazioni da incubo in giro per il mondo" (in Italian). 29 March 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
584. "Merenda, una abitudine tutta italiana: cinque ricette salutari per tutta la famiglia" (in Italian). 12 August 2021. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
585. "In cosa consiste l'Italian Sounding". Agrifood.tech (in Italian). 25 March 2020. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
586. "Le feste mobili. Feste religiose e feste civili in Italia" (in Italian). Retrieved 29 December 2022.
587. ^ "Festività nazionali in Italia" (in Italian). Italian Embassy in London. Archived from the original on 24 June 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
588. "Saint Lucy – Sicily's Most Famous Woman – Best of Sicily Magazine". www.bestofsicily.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2012.
589. Roy, Christian (2005). Traditional Festivals. ABC-CLIO. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-57607-089-5. Retrieved 13 January 2015.
590. Jonathan Boardman (2000). Rome: A Cultural and Literary Companion (Google Books). University of California: Signal Books. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-902669-15-1.
591. ^ Anderson, Ariston (24 July 2014). "Venice: David Gordon Green's 'Manglehorn,' Abel Ferrara's 'Pasolini' in Competition Lineup". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 18 February 2016.
592. "Celebrations of big shoulder-borne processional structures". UNESCO.org. Archived from the original on 13 December 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2014.
593. "Addio, Lido: Last Postcards from the Venice Film Festival". Time. Archived from the original on 20 September 2014.

Bibliography

• Cushman-Roisin, Benoit; Gačić, Miroslav; Poulain, Pierre-Marie (2001). Physical oceanography of the Adriatic Sea. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-0225-0.
• Hacken, Richard. "History of Italy: Primary Documents". EuroDocs: Harold B. Lee Library: Brigham Young University. Retrieved 6 March 2010.
• "FastiOnline: A database of archaeological excavations since the year 2000". International Association of Classical Archaeology (AIAC). 2004–2007. Retrieved 6 March 2010.
• Hibberd, Matthew. The media in Italy (McGraw-Hill International, 2007)
• Sarti, Roland, ed. Italy: A reference guide from the Renaissance to the present (2004)
• Sassoon, Donald. Contemporary Italy: politics, economy and society since 1945 (Routledge, 2014)
• "Italy History – Italian History Index" (in Italian and English). European University Institute, The World Wide Web Virtual Library. 1995–2010. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2010.

External links

Government

• Government website (in Italian)
• Official site of the Italian Parliament (in Italian)
• Official site of the President of the Italian Republic
• Italian Higher Education for International Students
• Italian National and Regional parks
• Italian tourism official website

Economy

• Site of the Ministry of Economy and Finance

General information

• Italy from BBC News
• Italy. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Italy from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Template:Curlie
• Italy. Encyclopædia Britannica.
• Italy from the OECD
• Italy at the EU
• Wikimedia Atlas of Italy
• Geographic data related to Italy at OpenStreetMap
• Key Development Forecasts for Italy from International Futures

Articles related to Italy

v t e Countries and dependencies of Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependent territories Denmark Faroe Islands autonomous country of the Kingdom of Denmark United Kingdom Akrotiri and Dhekelia (Sovereign Base Areas) Gibraltar (British Overseas Territory) Crown Dependencies Bailiwick of Guernsey Alderney Guernsey Sark Bailiwick of Jersey Isle of Man Special areas of internal sovereignty Finland Åland (autonomous region subject to the Åland convention of 1921) Norway Svalbard (unincorporated area subject to the Svalbard Treaty) United Kingdom England Scotland Wales Northern Ireland (country of the United Kingdom subject to the British-Irish Agreement) Spans the conventional boundary between Europe and another continent. Considered European for cultural, political and historical reasons but is geographically in Western Asia. Oceanic islands within the vicinity of Europe are usually grouped with the continent even though they are not situated on its continental shelf. Governed by the Holy See which has sovereignty over Vatican City. Category Europe portal v t e Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea Sovereign states Albania Algeria Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Cyprus Egypt France Greece Israel Italy Lebanon Libya Malta Monaco Montenegro Morocco Slovenia Spain Syria Tunisia Turkey States with limited recognition Northern Cyprus Palestine Dependencies and other territories Akrotiri and Dhekelia (UK) Gibraltar (UK) Ceuta and Melilla (Spain) Marginal seas Adriatic Sea Aegean Sea Alboran Sea Balearic Sea Ionian Sea Levantine Sea Libyan Sea Ligurian Sea Sea of Crete Sea of Marmara Sea of Sardinia Thracian Sea Tyrrhenian Sea v t e Member states of the European Union Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden See also: Potential enlargement and Former members v t e Members of the European Economic Area (EEA) EFTA member states Iceland (EU relations) Liechtenstein (EU relations) Norway (EU relations) EU member states Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia (provisional member) Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden See also: UK membership, CH–EU relations, and UK–EU relations v t e Council of Europe Institutions Secretary General Committee of Ministers Parliamentary Assembly Congress Court of Human Rights Commissioner for Human Rights Commission for the Efficiency of Justice Commission against Racism and Intolerance Venice Commission Pompidou Group Members Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Observers Canada Holy See Israel Japan Mexico United States EU relations Former members Czechoslovakia (1991–1992) Russia (1996–2022) Saar (assoc. 1950–1956) Serbia and Montenegro (2003–2006) v t e Group of Eight (G8) and Group of Eight + Five (G8+5) G8 members Canada France Germany Italy Japan Russia (suspended) United Kingdom United States Representative European Union G8+5 Brazil China India Mexico South Africa See also G6 G7 G7+1 G4 (Europe) G4 (UN) v t e G20 major economies African Union Argentina Australia Brazil Canada China European Union France Germany India Indonesia Italy Japan Mexico Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Turkey United Kingdom United States v t e Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Members Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Canada Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Holy See Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Mongolia Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tajikistan Turkey Turkmenistan Ukraine United Kingdom United States Uzbekistan Partners for Cooperation Afghanistan Algeria Australia Egypt Israel Japan Jordan Morocco South Korea Thailand Tunisia Bodies and posts Parliamentary Assembly Court of Conciliation and Arbitration Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights Commissioner on National Minorities Representative on Freedom of the Media Contact Point for Roma and Sinti Issues OSCE Minsk Group Relations Armenia–OSCE relations Azerbaijan–OSCE relations List of ambassadors of Italy to OSCE List of diplomats of the United Kingdom to the OSCE United States Mission to the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Active field missions Presence in Albania Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina Mission in Kosovo Mission to Montenegro Mission to Moldova Mission to Serbia Mission to Skopje Centre in Ashgabat Programme Office in Astana Programme Office in Bishkek Programme Office in Dushanbe Project Co-ordinator in Uzbekistan Personal Representative of the Chairperson-in-Office on the Conflict Dealt with by the OSCE Minsk Conference Former field missions Needs Assessment Team in Armenia Mission to Croatia Kosovo Verification Mission Community Security Initiative in Kyrgyzstan Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine