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| Japan | North Korea | South Korea |
There have been disputes between Japan and Korea (both North and South) on many issues over the years. Japan and Korea have a complex history of cultural exchange, trade, and war, underlying their relations today. Throughout the ages, cultural exchanges of ideas between Japan and Korea were common through Koreans immigrating to Japan or via Japanese trade and diplomacy with Korea. Skeletons of the Yayoi people are similar to that of modern ethnic Japanese as well as ethnic Koreans. However, the the 1910–1945 Japanese colonial rule of Korea, has significantly harmed the relations between both the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea along with the State of Japan.
Today, Japan and South Korea are major trading partners, and many students, tourists, entertainers, and business people travel between the two countries, whereas North Korea's political and economic relations with Japan are not as developed.
Historical issues
Korea under Japanese rule
Main article: Korea under Japanese ruleWith the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, Japan became involved in Korean politics. In 1895, Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by Japanese agents. In 1897, Joseon was renamed the Korean Empire (1897–1910) and, when the Korean Empire signed a Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 in 1905, Korea became a protectorate of Japan. The Korean imperial family was also elevated to become part of the Japanese nobility. In 1909, following the signing of the treaty, An Jung-geun assassinated the Japanese statesman and Resident-General of Korea Itō Hirobumi for the Korean independence cause.
In 1910, Japan annexed Korea. The legality of the annexation and the subsequent 35-years of Management of the Korean Peninsula by Japan are controversial, and both have been criticized as illegal based on the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905's having been signed under duress, as well as its never having been ratified by Gojong of the Korean Empire. Japanese scholarship has challenged this view of the treaty as invalid.
After Japan abolished the privileges of the Joseon Dynasty, Kim Il-sung led the Korean independence movement, which was active in the border areas of China and Russia. The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, led by South Korea's first president Syngman Rhee, moved from Shanghai to Chongqing. Japanese control of Korea ended in September 9, 1945 with Governor-General of Korea signed the surrender document of the United States in Seoul.
Japanese apologies to Korea for colonization
Main article: List of war apology statements issued by JapanFollowing their independence from Imperial Japan, both North and South Korea demanded apologies for what they regarded as brutal, unjust occupation. Most Japanese cabinet members have made apologies. However, South Korea accused Japan of insincerity because Japan did not concede sovereignty of Liancourt Rocks to South Korea.
Most Japanese Prime Ministers have issued apologies, including Prime Minister Obuchi in the Japan-Republic of Korea Joint Declaration of 1998, and Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi in the Japan-DPRK Pyongyang Declaration of 2002. Koizumi said, "I once again express my feelings of deep remorse and heartfelt apology, and also express the feelings of mourning for all victims, both at home and abroad, in the war." While Koreans welcomed the apologies at the time, many Koreans now view the statements as insincere, because of continuous misunderstandings between the two nations. In one example in 2005, the Koizumi Cabinet did not participate, but 47 Diet members visited Yasukuni shrine for a memorial service. This was seen by South Koreans as a contradiction and has caused many South Koreans to distrust Japanese statements of apology.
Statements by Japanese politicians on colonial rule
Since the 1950s, many prominent politicians and officials in Japan have made statements on Japanese colonial rule in Korea which created outrage and led to diplomatic scandals in Korean-Japanese relations. The statements have led to anti-Japanese sentiments among Koreans, and a widespread perception that Japanese apologies for colonial rules have been insincere.
During the talks between Japan and Korea in 1953, Kubota Kanichiro (久保田貫一郞), one of Japanese representatives, stated that "Japanese colonial rule was beneficial to Korea...Korea would have been colonized by other countries anyway, which would have led to harsher rules than Japanese rules." This remark is considered by Koreans as the first reckless statement by Japanese politicians on colonial rules on Korea.
In 1997, Abe Shinzo (安倍晋三), an ex-Prime Minister of Japan, stated that "Many so-called victims of comfort women system are liars...prostitution was ordinary behavior in Korea because the country had many brothels."
On May 31, 2003, Aso Taro (麻生太郎), another ex-Prime Minister of Japan, stated that "the change to Japanese name (創氏改名) during Japanese colonial rule was what Koreans wanted."
On October 28, 2003, Ishihara Shintaro (石原愼太郞), Governor of Tokyo stated that "The annexation of Korea and Japan was Koreans' choice...the ones to be blamed are the ancestors of Koreans".
In 2007, Shimomura Hakubun (下村博文), Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary of Japanese government, stated that "The comfort women system existed, but I believe it was because Korean parents sold their daughters at that time."
On March 27, 2010, in the centennial of Japan-Korean annexation, Edano Yukio (枝野幸男), Japanese Minister of State for Government Revitalization, stated that "The invasion and colonization and China and Korea was historically inevitable...since China and Korea could not modernize themselves."
Japanese compensation to Korea for colonial rule
Main article: Treaty on Basic Relations between South Korea and JapanTwenty years after World War II, South Korea and Japan re-established diplomatic relations with the 1965 signing of the Treaty on Basic Relations. In 2005, South Korea disclosed diplomatic documents that detailed the proceedings of the treaty. Kept secret for 40 years, the documents revealed that Japan provided 500 million dollars in soft loans and 300 million in grants to South Korea as compensation for its 1910–45 occupation, and that South Korea agreed to demand no more compensation after the treaty, either at a government-to-government level or an individual-to-government level. It was also revealed that the South Korean government assumed the responsibility for compensating individuals on a lump sum basis while rejecting Japan's proposal for direct compensation.
However, the South Korean government used most of the loans for economic development and have failed to provide adequate compensation to victims, paying only 300,000 won per death, with only a total of 2,570 million won to the relatives of 8,552 victims who died in forced labor. As the result, the Korean victims are preparing to file a compensation suit against the South Korean government as of 2005. The treaty does not preclude individual suits against Japanese individuals or corporations but such suits are often constrained by the statute of limitation. Women's International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan's Military Sexual Slavery, a mock trial organised by and supported by international NGOs, issued a ruling that "states cannot agree by treaty to waive the liability of another state for crimes against humanity."
Return of Korean remains
During the Japanese period of Korea (notably during World War II), Japan mobilized 20,000 of laborers from Korea to sustain industrial production, mainly in mining. Most of them were eventually returned to Korea after the war, with many dying in Japan by the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima. People's Republic of China requested help in finding the dead bodies of Chinese kidnapped laborers for proper burial. The Japanese government delegated this responsibility to the corporations that committed the kidnappings. Corporations, such as Mitsubishi, Mitsumi and others, stated that the culpability should fall on the governments and not on private companies. The situation prevented China from appropriately coordinating their efforts, and they have only identified a few hundred bodies. And Korean workers began demanding their unpaid wages immediately after Japan's surrender and continue to do so today. The issue remains salient in Korea, where what is perceived to be the insensitivity of Japan stirred popular outrage among Koreans.
Return of Korean cultural artifacts
During the Japanese Occupation, the Korean language was repressed. Koreans were required to take Japanese surnames, known as Sōshi-kaimei. Traditional Korean culture suffered heavy losses, as numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan. To this day, valuable Korean artifacts can often be found in Japanese museums or among private collections. One investigation by the South Korean government identified 75,311 cultural assets that were taken from Korea, 34,369 in Japan and 17,803 in the United States.
Comfort women
Main article: Comfort womenMany in Korea have been demanding compensation for "comfort women", the women who were pressured to work in Imperial Japanese military brothels during World War II. Enlisted to the military stations through force, kidnapping, coercion, and deception, the Korean comfort women, most of them under the age of 18, were forced to have sexual relationships with 30–40 soldiers each day. As the few surviving comfort women continue to strive for acknowledgment and a sincere apology, the Japanese court system has rejected such claims due to the length of time and claiming that there is no evidence.
In November 1990, the Korean Council for the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan (한국정신대문제대책협의회; 韓國挺身隊問題對策協議會) was established in South Korea. As of 2008, a lump sum payment of 43 million Korean won and a monthly payment of 0.8 million won are given to the survivors. The Japanese government arranged a small private organization that gives small amounts of money to the victims. Today, many of the surviving comfort women are in their 80s. As of 2007, according to South Korean government, there are 109 survivors in South Korea and 218 in North Korea. The survivors in South Korea protest in front of the Japanese embassy in Seoul, Korea every Wednesday. The protest was held for 1000th time in December, 2011.
In December 2000, The Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan’s Military Sexual Slavery sat in Tokyo, Japan. During the proceedings, the judges of the Tribunal heard hours of testimony by 75 survivors, as well as reviewed affidavits and video interviews by countless others. The Tribunal's Judgment found Emperor Hirohito and other Japanese officials guilty of crimes against humanity and held that Japan bore state responsibility and should pay reparations to the victims.
In July 2007, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a non-binding resolution that Japan apologize for forcing women into sex slavery during World War II. The resolution was sponsored by Mike Honda (D-CA), a third-generation Japanese-American. On December 13, 2007, the European Parliament adopted a resolution that demands the Japanese government to apologize to the survivors of Japan's military sexual slavery system. This resolution was passed with 54 ayes out of 57 parliament members present. It became the fourth foreign country to demand an official apology from Japan to Korea.
Japanese prime ministers' visits to Yasukuni Shrine
Main article: Yasukuni ShrineYasukuni Shrine (靖國神社) is a Shinto shrine which memorializes Japanese armed forces members killed in wartime. It was constructed as a memorial during the Meiji era. The shrine houses the remains of Tojo Hideki (東条英機), the Prime Minister and Army Minister of Japan during much of World War II, between 1941 and 1944, and 13 other Class-A war criminals. The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal convicted 148 Koreans of Class B and C war crimes, 23 of whom were sentenced to death. Yasukuni shrine has been a subject of controversy, containing a memorial for 1,043 Japanese and 23 Korean B and C war criminals who were executed, as well as 14 Japanese A-class war criminals.
Nakasone Yasuhiro (中曾根康弘) and Hashimoto Ryutaro (橋本龍太郞) visited Yasukuni shrine and paid respects as Prime Minister of Japan in 1986 and 1996 respectively, which drew intense opposition from Korea and China. Koizumi Junichiro (小泉純一郎) visited the Shrine and paid respects 6 times during his term as Prime Minister of Japan, starting on August 13, 2001, stating that he was "paying homage to the servicemen who died for defense of Japan." These visits drew strong condemnation and protests from Japan's neighbors again, mainly China and South Korea. As a result, the heads of the two countries refused to meet with Koizumi, and there were no mutual visits between Chinese and Japanese leaders after October 2001 and between South Korean and Japanese leaders after June 2005. President of South Korea Roh Moo-hyun had suspended all summit talks between South Korea and Japan, until 2008 when he resigned from office.
Koizumi's successors have not visited Yasukuni shrine, but offered tributary gifts as Prime Minister of Japan – Abe Shinzo (安倍晋三) in 2007 and Aso Taro (麻生太郞) in 2008 and 2009.
Nationalist historiography
See also: Japanese history textbook controversiesWhile most anthropologists and historians acknowledge that Japan has historically been actively engaged with its neighbors China and Korea, as well as Southeast Asia. Among these neighbors, Chinese culture came to Japan from the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Japanese and Korean peoples share closely linked ethnic, cultural and anthropological histories, a point of controversy between nationalist scholars in Japan and Korea rests on which culture came first, and can thus be considered the forebear of the other.
Modern historiography is also a seat of discord. In South Korea, popular debates about "cleansing history" (Korean: 내역(과거)청산; RR: gwageo cheongsan; MR: kwagŏ ch'ŏngsan) focus on finding and recriminating "collaborators" with Japanese colonial authorities. In North Korea, the songbun system of ascribed status is used to punish citizens with collaborating relatives or ancestors.
On the other hand, Japan's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) reviews and approves the content of school history textbooks available for selection by Japanese schools. Foreign scholars, as well as many Japanese historians, have criticized the political slant and factual errors in some approved textbooks. After a textbook by Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform (JSHTR) passed inspection in April 2001, the South Korean government, 59 NGOs from Korea and Japan, and some Japanese teachers' unions, registered objections to certain passages' omission of Japanese war crimes including comfort women and the Nanking Massacre. Although Tsukurukai's textbook has sold six hundred thousand copies in the general market, it has been adopted by less than 0.39% of Japanese schools. In 2010, another textbook by the JSHTR passed inspection and was published by Jiyusha (自由社).
Geographic disputes
Liancourt Rocks
Main article: Liancourt Rocks disputeThe Liancourt Rocks, called Takeshima (竹島; "bamboo island") in Japanese and Dokdo (독도, 獨島; "solitary island") in Korean, are a group of islets in the Sea of Japan (East Sea) whose ownership is disputed between Japan and South Korea. There are valuable fishing grounds around the islets and potentially large reserves of methane clathrate.
The territorial dispute is a major source of nationalist tensions. Many Korean nationals have placed the dispute in the context of the history of occupation, so that ceding the territory to Japan would be an unthinkable affront to national dignity: a renewal of past Japanese subjugation. Korean tourists visit the remote, inhospitable island, in order to show national solidarity. In Japan, schoolchildren are instructed that the islands belong rightfully to Japan, and in 2005 Japanese officials declared "Takeshima Day", to highlight their territorial claim to the islands.
Although the Liancourt Rocks are claimed by both Japan and Korea, the islets are currently administered by the Republic of Korea (South Korea), which has its Korean Coast Guard stationed there.
Tsushima
Main article: Tsushima IslandA small minority of Koreans claim this island to be Korean, although the South Korean government does not make this claim. Called "Tsushima" in Japanese and "Daemado" in Korean, This island was recorded on the Chinese history book as a territory in Japan from ancient times. This island as Tsushima Province, has been ruled since ancient times by Japanese Legalism. According to the Homer Hulbert, this island was a dependency to Silla one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. However, according to the Korean history book Samguk Sagi written in 1145, Tsushima is ruled by the Japan from AD.400
In 1948, the South Korean government formally demanded that the island be ceded to South Korea based on "historical claims". However, the claim was rejected by SCAP in 1949. On July 19, 1951, the South Korean government agreed that the earlier demand for Tsushima had been dropped by the Korean government with regards to the Japanese peace treaty negotiations.
In 2010, a group of 37 members of the South Korean congress formed a forum to study Korea's territorial claims to Tsushima and make out-reach efforts to the public. They said Tsushima was a part of Korean history and the people on the island are closely ethnically related to Koreans. Yasunari Takarabe, incumbent Mayor of Tsushima rejects the Korean territorial claim: "Tsushima has always been Japan. I want them to retract their wrong historical perception. It was mentioned in the Gishiwajinden (ja:魏志倭人伝) as part of Wa (Japan). It has never been and cannot be a South Korean territory."
Sea of Japan naming dispute
Main article: Sea of Japan naming disputeThere is dispute over the international name for this body of water. Japan points out that the name "Sea of Japan" (Template:Lang-ja) was used in a number of European maps from the late 18th century to the early 19th century, and that many maps today retain this naming. However, both the North and South Korean governments have protested that Japan encouraged the usage of the name "Sea of Japan" while Korea lost effective control over its foreign policy under Japanese imperial expansion. South Korea argues that the name "East Sea" (Korean: 동해; Hanja: 東海), which was one of the most common names found on ancient European maps of this sea, should be the name instead of (or at least used concurrently with) "Sea of Japan."
Japan claims that Western countries named it the "Sea of Japan" prior to 1860, before the growth of Japanese influence over Korean foreign policy after the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894. Further, Japan claims that the primary naming occurred during the period of Sakoku, when Japan had very little foreign contact, and thus Japan could not have influenced the naming decisions. It was in 1928, when the International Hydrographic Organization's Limits of Oceans and Seas officially took the name Sea of Japan, which eventually influenced other official international documents such as the United Nations. South Korea claims that Korea was occupied by the Japanese and effectively had no international voice to protest in 1928.
Miscellaneous issues
Boycotting of Japanese products
After the end of Japanese Occupation, Japanese cultural products such as music, film, and books were banned in both North and South Korea. The boycott was lifted in South Korea starting in 1998. Some Japanese cultural items, including but not limited to manga, anime and music, have been introduced into South Korea even while they were banned (the Korean public was not informed of their Japanese origin).This is in spite of the fact that a Korean character does not appear in any episode of the animated series. The animation continues to see distribution through mobile networks and internet streaming.
Kidnapping of Japanese citizens by North Korea
Main article: North Korean abductions of JapaneseA 13-year-old junior high school student from Niigata, Megumi Yokota, was kidnapped by North Korea on November 15, 1977. In addition to her, many other Japanese citizens were kidnapped by North Korean agents. In 2002, North Korea admitted to kidnapping 13 Japanese citizens during the 1970s and 1980s, in order to train spies to infiltrate U.S. military installations in Japan. Five people have been released, but the North Korean government claimed that there were eight dead. Japan has pressed for the return of the bodies. However, the Japanese government believes that there are still kidnapped Japanese citizens being held captive in North Korea. North Korea's official statement is that the issue has been settled. Because of the overwhelming number of South Koreans also kidnapped by North Korea, there has been some joint efforts of South Korea and Japan in retrieving their citizens.
Plagiarism of Japanese products
Korea has been accused of plagiarizing Japanese products. In 2007, a K-pop singer Ivy was accused of copying a scene from the Japanese video game movie adaptation Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children in one of her music videos. The court ordered that the video be banned from airing on television, stating that "most of the clip is noticeably similar to scenes from the film,".
Zainichi Koreans
Main article: Zainichi KoreanZainichi (在日, Resident Japan) refers to ethnic Koreans currently residing in Japan. Most of them are second-, third-, or fourth-generation Koreans who have not yet applied for Japanese citizenship. while others entered Japan illegally in order to escape the Korean War that took place after the Japanese occupation. They lost their Japanese citizenship after the signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty, which officially ended the Japanese annexation of Korea and their country of origin, Korea, no longer existed when South Korea and North Korea became separate states. Zainichi communities are split based upon affiliation with North or South Korea, (Chongryon and Mindan). It is claimed that two or three of the leaders of the smaller organized crime syndicates found on a list of more than twenty such groups as specified by the National Police Agency in Japan may be ethnic Koreans.
More positively speaking, Masayoshi Son (손정의), Japan's businessman and chief of Softbank, is of Zainichi background. In addition, some of Japan's popular stars, athletes and high ranking businessmen were of Zainichi Korean background, including Rikidōzan (역도산), Mas Oyama (최배달), Isao Harimoto (장훈), and Kaneda Masaichi (김정일). In order to escape discrimination, there are Koreans living in Japan who use Japanese names to hide their origin. Today, however, as the relationship between Japan and Korea has improved, there also exist many Zainichi Koreans or former Zainichi Koreans with Japanese nationality who don't hide their origin and are in full activity, such as Yu Miri (유미리), an Akutagawa Prize-winning playwright and Tadanari Lee (이충성), a Japanese football player of Korean origin.
Kimchi exports
In the 1990s, a dispute arose regarding the marketing of kimchi, considered to be a traditional Korean dish. Japanese kimchi manufacturers began significantly increasing kimchi production during this time. Korean manufacturers, however, argued that Japanese kimchi is fundamentally different, in that Japanese manufacturers often skip fermentation and mimic the flavors through the use of additives. Korean producers argued that this made the product fundamentally different from kimchi, while Japanese producers argued they were simply altering the product to fit local tastes. In 2000, Korea began lobbying the makers of the Codex Alimentarius, an international food-standards maker which provides voluntary advise to national food agencies, to designate kimchi as only that which is produced in the traditional Korean style. In 2001 the Codex Alimentarius published a voluntary standard defining kimchi as "a fermented food that uses salted napa cabbages as its main ingredient mixed with seasonings, and goes through a lactic acid production process at a low temperature", but which did not specify a minimum amount of fermentation nor forbid the use of additives.
See also
References
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The Japanese annexation of Korea concluded in 1910, from which time the Korean people had to suffer under Japanese colonial rule until the surrender of Japan and the conclusion of World War II in 1945.
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전민족운동이었던 3·1운동에 의해 수립된 임시정부...대내적으로는 독립운동의 통할기구로서의 구실을 가지고 탄생...상해에 있던 시기(1919∼1932)에는 국내외동포사회에 통할조직을 확대하면서 외교활동이나 독립전쟁 등을 지도, 통할하는 데 주력하였다. 초기의 독립전쟁은 만주와 연해주(沿海州)의 독립군단체에 일임...이 시기에 가장 주목할 성과는 광복군(光復軍)을 창설.. (trans. It was a provisional government established by the March 1st Movement that excised the whole nation..It was founded with the purpose as the united organ to excise the Korean liberation movement both outside and inside of Korea...During the period based in Shanghai (1919–1932), it expanded the supervising organization to the Korean society inside and aboard, it focused on leading and supervising diplomatic activities and liberation movement. The earlier liberation war was entrusted to independence groups in Manchuria and Primorsky Krai..The most notable achievement in the period was to establish the Independence Army...
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - "'일본 망언' 누리꾼 분노 폭발 : 토론과 논쟁 : 여론칼럼 : 인터넷한겨레". Hani.co.kr. Retrieved April 19, 2012.
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{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Newsweek.com. Who rightfully owns Korean artifacts looted by Japan?
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- "Korean Protests Call for Hetalia Anime's Cancellation (Update 2) – News". Anime News Network. Retrieved April 19, 2012.
- Author: Artefact (January 16, 2009). "Koreans Force Cancellation of "Criminal" Hetalia". Sankaku Complex. Retrieved April 19, 2012.
{{cite web}}:|author=has generic name (help) - Chris Fortson (October 28, 2002). "Expert speaks on 1980s Japanese kidnappings". Yale Daily News. Retrieved October 11, 2007.
- Choe Sang-Hun (April 21, 2006). "Abductions unite South Korea and Japan". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved October 11, 2007.
- 최승현 (January 12, 2006). "방송 일본 TV 베끼기 "아직도 그대로네"" (in Korean). The Chosun Ilbo. Retrieved October 11, 2007.
- 유아정 기자 (October 11, 2007). "SC 매거진 TV 오락프로 이대로 좋은가...끊임없는 표절 논란" (in Korean). 스포츠조선 (Naver). Retrieved October 11, 2007.
- 장진리 (October 11, 2007). "한국 인기 먹거리, 일본 제품 표절 심하네" (in Korean). 일간스포츠. Archived from the original on October 9, 2007. Retrieved October 11, 2007.
- 이주영 (August 23, 2005). "MBC´일밤´´추격남녀´도 표절의혹" (in Korean). 데일리안. Retrieved October 11, 2007.
- 강지훈 (January 26, 2007). "가수 노블레스 뮤비, 드라마 '프라이드' 표절 의혹" (in Korean). 데일리안. Retrieved October 11, 2007.
- 고재열 (January 12, 2006). "<하늘이시여> 표절 의혹" (in Korean). 시사저널. Retrieved October 11, 2007.
- Kim, Tong-hyong (April 6, 2007). "Court Bans Ivy's Music Video". The Korea Times. Retrieved October 11, 2007.
- Sims, Calvin (February 2000) "Cabbage Is Cabbage? Not to Kimchi Lovers; Koreans Take Issue with a Rendition of Their National Dish Made in Japan". The New York Times.
- CODEX STANDARD FOR KIMCHI The Codex Alimentarius Commission
Further reading
- Cha, Victor D. (1999). Alignment despite Antagonism: the US-Korea-Japan Security Triangle. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3191-8.
- Dudden, Alexis (2008). Troubled Apologies Among Japan, Korea, and the United States. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14176-5.
- Lee, Chong-Sik (1963). The Politics of Korean Nationalism. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Lee, Chong-Sik (1985). Japan and Korea: The Political Dimension. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8179-8181-0.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|authormask=ignored (|author-mask=suggested) (help) - Lind, Jennifer (2008). Sorry States: Apologies in International Politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4625-2.
- Myers, Ramon Hawley; et al. (1984). The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05398-7.
{{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|last2=(help) - Morley, James (1965). Japan and Korea. New York: Walker.
External links
- Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{langx|en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead. History of Mindan
- Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{langx|en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead. Online Newspaper covering Zainichi Korean and Mindan
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