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Northern Thai
ᨣᩴᩤᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ กำเมือง
Tai Tham script traditional transcription (top) Thai alphabet currently popular with non-standard form (bottom)
Pronunciation	[kam˧.mɯaŋ˧]
Native to	Thailand (Chiang Mai, Lamphun, Lampang, Uttaradit, Phrae, Nan, Phayao, Chiang Rai, Mae Hong Son and Communities throughout Thailand) Myanmar (Tachileik, Myawaddy) Laos (Houayxay, Ton Pheung)
Region	Northern Thailand
Ethnicity	Northern Thai
Native speakers	6 million (2015)
Language family	Kra–Dai Tai Southwestern (Thai) Chiang Saen Northern Thai
Writing system	Tai Tham script Thai script
Official status
Recognised minority language in	Thailand
Language codes
ISO 639-3	nod
Glottolog	nort2740

Kam Mueang (Northern Thai: ᨣᩴᩤᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ, กำเมือง) or Northern Thai language (Thai: ภาษาไทยถิ่นเหนือ) is the language of the Northern Thai people of Lanna, Thailand. It is a Southwestern Tai language. Kam Mueang has approximately six million speakers, most of whom live in the native Northern Thailand, with a smaller community of Lanna speakers in northwestern Laos.

Speakers of this language generally consider the name "Tai Yuan" to be pejorative. They refer to themselves as Khon Mueang (ᨤᩫ᩠ᨶᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ, คนเมือง, [kʰon˧.mɯaŋ˧] – literally "people of Mueang" meaning "city dwellers"), Lanna, or Northern Thai. The language is also sometimes referred to as Phayap (พายัพ, Thai pronunciation: [pʰāː.jáp]), "Northwestern (speech)".

The term Yuan is still sometimes used for Northern Thai's distinctive Tai Tham alphabet, which is closely related to the old Tai Lue alphabet and the Lao religious alphabets. The use of the Tua Mueang, as the traditional alphabet is known, is now largely limited to Buddhist temples, where many old sermon manuscripts are still in active use. There is no active production of literature in the traditional alphabet, and when used in writing standard Thai script is invariably used. The modern spoken form is called Kam Mueang. There is a resurgence of interest in writing it in the traditional way, but the modern pronunciation differs from that prescribed in spelling rules.

Classification

Northern Thai is classified as one of the Chiang Saen languages—others being Thai, Southern Thai and numerous smaller languages, which together with the Northwestern Tai and Lao-Phutai languages, form the Southwestern branch of Tai languages. The Tai languages are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family, which encompasses a large number of indigenous languages spoken in an arc from Hainan and Guangxi south through Laos and Northern Vietnam to the Cambodian border.

From a purely genealogical standpoint, most linguists consider Northern Thai to be more closely related to Central Thai than to Lao or Isan, but the language has been heavily influenced by both Lao and Central Thai throughout history. All Southwestern Tai languages form a coherent dialect continuum of more or less mutually intelligible varieties, with few sharp dividing lines. Nevertheless, Northern Thai has today become closer to the Central Thai language, as Standard Thai is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout Thailand.

Names

The Northern Thai language has various names in Northern Thai, Thai, and other Tai languages.

• In Northern Thai, it is commonly called kam mueang (ᨣᩴᩤᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ, /kām.mɯ̄aŋ/, literally "city language"; cf. Standard Thai: คำเมือง /kʰām mɯ̄aŋ/), or phasa Lan Na (ᨽᩣᩈᩣᩃ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨶᨶᩣ, ภาษาล้านนา /pʰāː.sǎː láːn nāː/, literally "the language of Lan Na").
• In Central Thai and Southern Thai, Northern Thai is known as phasa thin phayap (ภาษาถิ่นพายัพ /pʰāː.sǎː.tʰìn.pʰāː.jáp/, literally "the language of the northwestern region"), or phasa thai thin nuea (ภาษาไทยถิ่นเหนือ /pʰāː.sǎː tʰāj tʰìn nɯ̌a/, literally "the Thai language of the northern region", or colloquially it is known as phasa nuea (ภาษาเหนือ /pʰāː.sǎː nɯ̌a/, literally "the northern language").
• In Lao, it is known as phasa nyuan or phasa nyon (ພາສາຍວນ or ພາສາໂຍນ respectively, /pʰáː.sǎː ɲúan/ or /pʰáː.sǎː ɲóːn/ respectively, literally "the Tai Yuan language").
• In Tai Lü, it is known as kam yon (ᦅᧄᦍᦷᧃ kâm jôn, literally "the Tai Yuan language").
• In Shan it is known as kwam yon (ၵႂၢမ်းယူၼ်း kwáːm jón, literally "the Tai Yuan language").

History

Tai migration

The ancestors of the Northern Thai people were speakers of Southwestern Tai dialects that migrated from what is now southeastern China, specifically what is now Guangxi and northern Vietnam where the diversity of various Tai languages suggests an Urheimat. The Southwestern Tai languages began to diverge from the Northern and Central branches of the Tai languages, covered mainly by various Zhuang languages, sometime around 112 AD, but likely completed by the sixth century. Due to the influx of Han Chinese soldiers and settlers, the end of the Chinese occupation of Vietnam, the fall of Jiaozhi and turbulence associated with the decline and fall of the Tang dynasty led some of the Tai peoples speaking Southwestern Tai to flee into Southeast Asia, with the small-scale migration mainly taking place between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The Tais split and followed the major river courses, with the ancestral Northern Thai originating in the Tai migrants that followed the Mekong River.

Indianized kingdoms

Ancestors of the Northern Thai people established Ngoenyang, an early kingdom that existed between the 7th to 13th centuries, as well as smaller kingdoms like Phayao, in what is now modern-day northern Thailand. They settled in areas adjacent to the kingdom of Hariphunchai, coming into contact with Mon-speaking people whose writing system was eventually adapted for the Northern Thai language as the Tai Tham script. In the 13th century, King Mangrai consolidated control of these territories, establishing the kingdom of Lan Na. In the 15th century, King Tilokkarat ushered in a golden age for Northern Thai literature, with a profusion of palm leaf manuscripts written in Tai Tham, using vernacular Northern Thai and interspersed with Pali and Buddhist Indic vocabulary.

Thai subordination

In 1775, Kawila of Lampang revolted with Siamese assistance, and captured the city, ending 200 years of Burmese rule. Kawila was installed as the prince of Lampang and Phraya Chaban as the prince of Chiang Mai, both as vassals of Siam. In 1899, Siam annexed the Northern Thai principalities, effectively dissolving their status as sovereign tributary states.

The Compulsory Education Act of 1921 banned schools and temples from using languages other than Central Thai (standard Thai), in an effort to bring remote regions under Siamese control. Northern Thai was relegated from the public sphere, with influential religious leaders like Khruba Srivichai jailed for using Northern Thai in sermons. In the 1940s, authorities promulgated Thai cultural mandates that reinforced the importance of learning and using Central Thai as the prestige language.

These economic and educational pressures have increased the use of standard Thai to the detriment of other regional languages like Northern Thai. Today, Northern Thai is typically code-switched with standard Thai, especially in more developed and urbanized areas of Northern Thailand, whereas exclusive use of Northern Thai remains prevalent in more remote areas.

Dialects

Thanajirawat (2018) classifies Tai Yuan into five major dialect groups based on tonal split and merger patterns. (See also Proto-Tai language#Tones)

1. most Tai Yuan varieties in Thailand, Laos and Myanmar
2. Bokeo Province, Laos (A12-34 and BCD123-4 (B4=DL4=DS4))
3. Mae Chaem District, Chiang Mai Province and Laplae District, Uttaradit Province, Thailand (A12-34 and BCD123-4 (A34=B123=DL123))
4. Tha Pla District, Uttaradit Province and Xayaburi Province, Laos (A12-34, BDL1234, and CDS123-4)
5. Ratchaburi Province, Thailand (A12-34 and BCD123-4 (A34=B123=DL123, B4=C4=DL4))

Phonology

Consonants

Initial consonants

Northern Thai consonant inventory is similar to that of Lao (Isan); both languages have the /ɲ/ sound and lack /tɕʰ/.

1. Implied before any vowel without an initial and after a short vowel without a final.
2. ^ /tɕʰ/ and /r/ occur in loanwords from Central and Southern Thai. is also a common allophone of /kʰ/

Initial consonant clusters

There are two relatively common consonant clusters:

• /kw/ ᨠ᩠ᩅ ᨣ᩠ᩅ (กว)
• /kʰw/ ᨡ᩠ᩅ ᨢ᩠ᩅ ᨥ᩠ᩅ ᨤ᩠ᩅ (ขว, คว)

There are also several other, less frequent clusters recorded, though apparently in the process of being lost:

• /ŋw/ ᨦ᩠ᩅ ᩉ᩠ᨦ᩠ᩅ (งว)
• /tɕw/ ᨧ᩠ᩅ ᨩ᩠ᩅ (จว)
• /sw/ ᩈ᩠ᩅ ᨪ᩠ᩅ (ซว, สว)
• /tw/ ᨲ᩠ᩅ ᨴ᩠ᩅ (ตว)
• /tʰw/ ᨳ᩠ᩅ (ถว, ทว)
• /nw/ ᨶ᩠ᩅ (นว)
• /ɲw/ ᨿ᩠ᩅ ᩉ᩠ᨿ᩠ᩅ (ญว, ยว)
• /jw/ ᩀ᩠ᩅ (ยว)
• /lw/ ᩃ᩠ᩅ ᩁ᩠ᩅ ᩉᩖ᩠ᩅ ᩉ᩠ᩃ᩠ᩅ (ลว)
• /ʔw/ ᩋ᩠ᩅ (อว)

Final consonants

All plosive sounds (besides the glottal stop /ʔ/) are unreleased. Hence, final /p/, /t/, and /k/ sounds are pronounced as , , and respectively.

1. A glottal stop occurs after a short vowel when no final consonant is written in the Thai script.

Vowels

The basic vowels of the Northern Thai language are similar to those of Standard Thai. They, from front to back and close to open, are given in the following table. The top entry in every cell is the symbol from the International Phonetic Alphabet, the second entry gives the spelling in the Thai alphabet, where a dash (–) indicates the position of the initial consonant after which the vowel is pronounced. A second dash indicates that a final consonant must follow.

The vowels each exist in long-short pairs: these are distinct phonemes forming unrelated words in Northern Thai, but usually transliterated the same: เขา (khao) means "they/them", while ขาว (khao) means "white".

The long-short pairs are as follows:

The basic vowels can be combined into diphthongs. For purposes of determining tone, those marked with an asterisk are sometimes classified as long:

Additionally, there are three triphthongs, For purposes of determining tone, those marked with an asterisk are sometimes classified as long:

Allophones

The following section largely concerns the Nan dialect of Northern Thai.

Tones

There are six phonemic tones in the Chiang Mai dialect of Northern Thai: low-rising, low-falling, high-level with glottal closure, mid-level, high-falling, and high-rising. or low-rising, mid-low, high-falling, mid-high, falling, and high rising-falling

Contrastive tones in smooth syllables

The table below presents six phonemic tones in the Chiang Mai and Nan dialects in smooth syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in sonorant sounds such as , , , , and and open syllables. Sources have not agreed on the phonetic realization of the six tones in the Chiang Mai dialect. The table presents information based on two sources, one from Gedney (1999) and the other one from the Lanna dictionary (2007) which is a Northern Thai-Thai dictionary. Although published in 1999, Gedney's information about the Chiang Mai dialect is based on data he collected from one speaker in Chiang Mai in 1964 (p. 725). As tones may change within one's lifetime (e.g., Bangkok Thai tones have changed over the past 100 years), the information about the six tones from Gedney (1999) should be considered with caution.

The Gedney boxes for the tones are shown below the descriptions.

Contrastive tones in checked syllables

The table below presents four phonemic tones in checked syllables, i.e. closed syllables ending in a glottal stop and obstruent sounds such as , , and .

Grammar

The grammar of Northern Thai is similar to those of other Tai languages. The word order is subject–verb–object, although the subject is often omitted. Just as Standard Thai, Northern Thai pronouns are selected according to the gender and relative status of speaker and audience.

Adjectives and adverbs

There is no morphological distinction between adverbs and adjectives. Many words can be used in either function. They succeed the word which they modify, which may be a noun, verb, or another adjective or adverb.

• ᨾᩯ᩵ᨿᩥ᩠ᨦᨳᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ / แม่ญิงเฒ่า (mae ying thao, /mɛ̂ː ɲīŋ tʰa᷇w/) an old woman
• ᨾᩯ᩵ᨿᩥ᩠ᨦᨴᩦ᩵ᨳᩮᩢ᩶ᩣᩅᩮᩥ᩠ᨿ / แม่ญิงตี้เฒ่าโวย (mae nying ti thao woi, ) a woman who became old quickly

Because adjectives can be used as complete predicates, many words used to indicate tense in verbs (see Verbs:Aspect below) may be used to describe adjectives.

• ᨡ᩶ᩣᩉᩥ᩠ᩅ / ข้าหิว (kha hiw, /kʰa᷇ː hǐw/) I am hungry.
• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨧᩢᩉᩥ᩠ᩅ / ข้าจะหิว (kha cha hiw, /kʰa᷇ː tɕa.hǐw/) I will be hungry.
• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᩃᩢ᩠ᨦᩉᩥ᩠ᩅ / ข้ากะลังหิว (kha kalang hiw, ) I am hungry right now.
• ᨡ᩶ᩣᩉᩥ᩠ᩅᩓ᩠ᩅ / ข้าหิวแล้ว (kha hiu laew, ) I am already hungry.

Verbs

Verbs do not inflect. They do not change with person, tense, voice, mood, or number; nor are there any participles.

• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨲᩦᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶ / ข้าตี๋เปิ้น (kha ti poen, ), I hit him.
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨲᩦᨡ᩶ᩣ / เปิ้นตี๋ข้า (poen ti kha, ), He hit me.

The passive voice is indicated by the insertion of ᨯᩰ᩠ᨶ / โดน (don, ) before the verb. For example:

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨯᩰᩫ᩠ᨶᨲᩦ / เปิ้นโดนตี๋ (poen don ti, ), He is hit or He got hit. This describes an action that is out of the receiver's control and, thus, conveys suffering.

To convey the opposite sense, a sense of having an opportunity arrive, ᨯᩱ᩶ / ได้ (dai, , can) is used. For example:

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨧᩢᨯᩱ᩶ᨸᩱᩋᩯ᩠᩵ᩅᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦᩃᩣ᩠ᩅ / เปิ้นจะได้ไปแอ่วเมืองลาว (poen cha dai pai aew mueang lao, ), He gets to visit Laos.
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨲᩦᨯᩱ᩶ / เปิ้นตี๋ได้ (poen ti dai, ), He is/was allowed to hit or He is/was able to hit

Negation is indicated by placing บ่ (bor, or not) before the verb.

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨷᩴ᩵ᨲᩦ / เปิ้นบ่ตี๋, (poen bor ti, ) He is not hitting. or He not hit.

Aspect is conveyed by aspect markers before or after the verb.

Present can be indicated by ᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᩃᩢ᩠ᨦ / กะลัง (kalang, , currently) or ᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᩃᩢ᩠ᨦᩉᩡ / กะลังหะ (kalangha, , currently) before the verb for ongoing action (like English -ing form), by ᩀᩪ᩵ / อยู่ (yu, ) after the verb, or by both. For example:

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᩃᩢ᩠ᨦᩉᩡᩃᩫ᩠᩵ᨶ / เปิ้นกะลังหะล่น (poen kalangha lon, ), or
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᩃᩫ᩠᩵ᨶᩀᩪ᩵ / เปิ้นล่นอยู่ (poen lon yu, ), or
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨠ᩵ᩣᩴᩃᩢ᩠ᨦᩃᩫ᩠᩵ᨶᩀᩪ᩵ / เปิ้นกะลังหะล่นอยู่ (poen kalanɡha lon yu, ), He is running.

Future can be indicated by ᨧᩢ / จะ (cha, , will) before the verb or by a time expression indicating the future. For example:

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨧᩢᩃᩫ᩠᩵ᨶ / เปิ้นจะล่น (poen cha lon, ), He will run or He is going to run.

Past can be indicated by ᨯᩱ᩶ / ได้ (dai, ) before the verb or by a time expression indicating the past. However, ᩓ᩠ᩅ / แล้ว (laew,  :, already) is often used to indicate the past aspect by being placed behind the verb. Or, both ได้ and แล้ว are put together to form the past aspect expression. For example:

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨯᩱ᩶ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ / เปิ้นได้กิ๋น (poen dai kin, ), He ate.
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᩓ᩠ᩅ / เปิ้นกิ๋นแล้ว (poen kin laew, , He has eaten.
• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨯᩱ᩶ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᩓ᩠ᩅ / เปิ้นได้กิ๋นแล้ว (poen dai kin laew, ), He's already eaten.

Aspect markers are not required.

• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨴᩦ᩵ᩉᩢ᩠᩶ᨶ / ข้ากิ๋นตี้หั้น (kha kin tihan, ), I eat there.
• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨴᩦ᩵ᩉᩢ᩠᩶ᨶᨲᩅᩤ / ข้ากิ๋นตี้หั้นตะวา (kha kin tihan tawa, ), I ate there yesterday.
• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨴᩦ᩵ᩉᩢ᩠᩶ᨶᩅᩢ᩠ᨶᨻᩕᩪᨠ / ข้ากิ๋นตี้หั้นวันพูก (kha kin tihan wanphuk, ), I'll eat there tomorrow.

Words that indicate obligation include at cha (ᩣ᩠ᨧᨧᩢ / อาจจะ), na cha (ᩉ᩠ᨶ᩶ᩣᨧᩢ / น่าจะ), khuan cha (ᨤ᩠ᩅᩁᨧᩢ / ควรจะ), and tong (ᨲ᩶ᩬᨦ / ต้อง).

• at cha (ᩋᩣ᩠ᨧᨧᩢ / อาจจะ, ) Might

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᩋᩣ᩠ᨧᨧᩢᨾᩣ / เปิ้นอาจจะมา (poen at cha ma, /pɤ̂n ʔàːt t͡ɕa.māː/) He might come.

• na cha (ᩉ᩠ᨶ᩶ᩣᨧᩢ / น่าจะ, ) Likely to

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᩉ᩠ᨶ᩶ᩣᨧᩢᨾᩣ / เปิ้นน่าจะมา (poen na cha ma, /pɤ̂n na᷇ː.t͡ɕa.māː/) He is likely to come.

• khuan cha (ᨤ᩠ᩅᩁᨧᩢ / ควรจะ, ) Should

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨤ᩠ᩅᩁᨧᩢᨾᩣ / เปิ้นควรจะมา (poen khuan cha ma, /pɤ̂n kʰūan.t͡ɕa.māː/) He should come.

• tong (ᨲᩬ᩶ᨦ / ต้อง, /tɔ᷇ːŋ/) Must

• ᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨲᩬ᩶ᨦᨾᩣ / เปิ้นต้องมา (poen tong ma, /pɤ̂n tɔ᷇ŋ māː/) He must come.

Actions that wherein one is busily engaged can be indicated by มัวก่า (mua ka, ).

• ᨣᩴ᩵ᨾ᩠ᩅᩫᨣ᩵ᩤᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᩉᩢ᩠᩶ᨶᨶᩰᩬᩡ / ก่อมัวก่ากิ๋นหั้นเนาะ (kor mua ka kin han nor, ) (It's that you/he/she) just keeps on eating it like that, you know?

Words that express one's desire to do something can by indicated by khai (ใค่) and kan (กั๊น).

• khai (ᨣᩕᩲ᩵ / ใค่, /kʰâj/, to want, to desire)

• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣᨣᩕᩲ᩵ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ / ข้าเจ้าใค่กิ๋น (kha.chao khai kin, ) I want to eat.

• kan (ᨣᩢ᩠᩶ᨶ / กั๊น, /kán/, to try)

• ᨡ᩶ᩣᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣᨣᩢ᩠᩶ᨶᨠᩥ᩠ᨶ / ข้าเจ้ากั๊นกิ๋น (kha.chao kan kin, ) I try to eat.

Phor tha wa (ᨹᩬᩴ᩵ᨵ᩵ᩤᩅ᩵ / ผ่อท่าว่า, ) is used to give the impression or sensation of being something or having a particular quality.

• ᨹᩬᩴ᩵ᨵ᩵ᩤᩅ᩵ᩤᨻᩮᩥ᩠᩵ᨶᨻᩖᩥᨠᨾᩣᩓ᩠ᩅ / ผ่อท่าว่าเปิ้นปิ๊กมาแล้ว (phor tha wa poen pik ma laew, ) It seems that he has returned.

Final particles

Northern Thai has a number of final particles, which have different functions.

Interrogative particles

Some of the most common interrogative particles are kor (ᨣᩴ᩵ / ก่อ, ) and ka (ᨣᩤ / กา, /kāː/)

• kor (ᨣᩴ᩵ / ก่อ, , denoting yes/no question)

• ᨾ᩠ᩅ᩵ᩁᨣᩴ᩵ / ม่วนก่อ (muan kor, ) Is it fun?

• ka (ᨣᩤ / กา (and its variants: ก๋า, กา), , denoting confirmative question)

• ᨾ᩠ᩅ᩵ᩁᨣᩤ / ม่วนกา (muan ka, ) It is fun, right?

Imperative particles

Some imperative particles are ᩃᩯ᩵ (แล่), ᨧᩥ᩠᩵ᨾ (จิ่ม), and ᨴᩮᩬᩥᩡ (เตอะ).

lae (ᩃᩯ᩵ / แล่, )

• ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᩃᩯ᩵ / กิ๋นแล่ (kin lae, ) Eat! (Authoritative).

chim (ᨧᩥ᩠᩵ᨾ / จิ่ม, )

• ᨡᩬᩴᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨧᩥ᩠᩵ᨾ / ขอกิ๋นจิ่ม (khor kin chim, /kʰɔ̌ː kǐn t͡ɕìm/) May I eat please?

hia (ᩉᩮ᩠ᨿ / เหีย, /hǐa/)

• ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᩉᩮ᩠ᨿ / กิ๋นเหีย (kin hia, /kǐn hǐa/) Eat! (because I know it will be beneficial to you).

toe (ᨴᩮᩬᩥᩡ / เต๊อะ, /tɤ᷇ʔ/)

• ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨴᩮᩬᩥᩡ / กิ๋นเต๊อะ (kin toe, /kǐn tɤ᷇ʔ/) Eat, please.

Polite particles

Polite particles include ᨣᩕᩢ᩠ᨷ (คับ) and ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ (เจ้า).

• khap (ᨣᩕᩢ᩠ᨷ / คับ, /kʰa᷇p/, used by males)

• ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨡᩮᩢ᩶ᩣᩓ᩠ᩅᨣᩕᩢ᩠ᨷ / กิ๋นเข้าแล้วคับ (kin khaw laew khap, /kǐn kʰa᷇w lɛ́ːw kʰa᷇p/) I have eaten, sir/ma'am.

• chao (ᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ / เจ้า, /t͡ɕa᷇w/, used by females)

• ᨠᩥ᩠ᨶᨡᩮᩢ᩶ᩣᩓ᩠ᩅᨧᩮᩢ᩶ᩣ / กิ๋นเข้าแล้วเจ้า (kin khaw laew chao, /kǐn kʰa᷇w lɛ́ːw t͡ɕa᷇w/) I have eaten, sir/ma'am.

Nouns

Nouns are uninflected and have no gender; there are no articles.

Nouns are neither singular nor plural. Some specific nouns are reduplicated to form collectives: ᩃᩡᩋᩬ᩵ᩁ / ละอ่อน (la-orn, , child) is often repeated as ᩃᩡᩋᩬ᩵ᩁᪧ ละอ่อน ๆ (la-orn la-orn, ,) to refer to a group of children.

The word ᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ / หมู่(mu, ) may be used as a prefix of a noun or pronoun as a collective to pluralize or emphasise the following word. (ᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ᨹᩫ᩠ᨾ / หมู่ผม, mu phom, , we (exclusive), masculine; ᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ᩁᩮᩢᩣ / หมู่เฮา mu hao, , emphasised we; ᩉ᩠ᨾᩪ᩵ᩉ᩠ᨾᩣ / หมู่หมา mu ma, , (the) dogs).

Plurals are expressed by adding classifiers, used as measure words (ลักษณนาม), in the form of noun-number-classifier ( ᨣᩕᩪᩉ᩶ᩣᨤᩫ᩠ᨶ / คูห้าคน, "teacher five person" for "five teachers").

Pronouns

Pronouns may be omitted once they have already been established in the first sentence, unless the pronoun in the following sentences is different from the first sentence. The pronoun "you" may also be omitted if the speaker is speaking directly to a second person. Moreover, names may replace pronouns, and they can even replace the first person singular pronoun.

Vocabulary

Northern Thai shares much vocabulary with Standard Thai, especially scientific terms, which draw many prefixes and suffixes from Sanskrit and Pali, and it also has its own distinctive words. Just like Thai and Lao, Northern Thai has borrowed many loanwords from Khmer, Sanskrit, and Pali.

Writing system

Currently, different scripts are used to write Northern Thai. Northern Thai is traditionally written with the Tai Tham script, which in Northern Thai is called tua mueang (ᨲᩫ᩠ᩅᨾᩮᩬᩥᨦ ตั๋วเมือง /tǔa.mɯ̄aŋ/) or tua tham (ᨲᩫ᩠ᩅᨵᩢᨾ᩠ᨾ᩺ ตั๋วธัมม์ /tǔa.tʰām/). However, native speakers are presently illiterate in the traditional script; therefore, they instead use the Thai script to write the language. In Laos, the Lao script is commonly used to write Northern Thai.

Some problems arise when the Thai script is used to write Northern Thai. In particular, Standard Thai script cannot transcribe all Northern Thai tones. The two falling tones in Northern Thai correspond to a single falling tone in Thai. Specifically, Northern Thai has two types of falling tones: high-mid falling tone (˥˧) and high-falling tone (˥˩). However, Thai lacks the distinction between the two falling tones, not having a high-falling tone (˥˧). When using Thai script to write Northern Thai tones, the distinction of the two falling tones is lost because Thai script can only indicate a low falling tone (˥˩). As an example, the tonal distinction between /ka᷇ː/ (ก้า (ᨠᩖ᩶ᩣ กล้า) "to be brave") and /kâː/ (ก้า (ᨣ᩵ᩤ ค่า) "value") is lost when written in Thai since as only /kâː/ (ก้า) is permitted. Consequently, the meaning of ก้า is ambiguous as it can mean both "to be brave" and "value". Similarly, /pa᷇ːj/ (ป้าย (ᨸ᩶ᩣ᩠ᨿ ป้าย) "sign") and /pâːj/ (ป้าย (ᨻ᩵ᩣ᩠ᨿ พ่าย) "to lose") have the same problem and only /pâːj/ (ป้าย) is permitted. As a result, the spelling ป้าย is ambiguous because it can mean both "sign" or "to lose". Such tonal mergence ambiguity is avoided when the language is written with the Northern Thai script.

• Northern Thai script page 1
• Northern Thai script page 2
• Northern Thai script page 3
• Northern Thai script page 4

Northern Thai and Standard Thai

The tables below present the differences between Northern Thai and Standard Thai.

Different sounds

Unlike Northern Thai, Standard Thai lacks alveolo-palatal nasal sound (/ɲ/). Thus, the alveolo-palatal nasal sound (/ɲ/) and the palatal approximant sound (/j/) in Northern Thai both correspond to the palatal approximant sound in Standard Thai:

Unlike Northern Thai, Standard Thai lacks a high-mid-falling tone (). The high-mid falling tone () and high-falling tone () in Northern Thai both correspond to the falling tone in Standard Thai ().

Different words

Many words differ from Standard Thai greatly:

Similar words

There is not a straightforward correspondence between the tones of Northern and Standard Thai. It also depends on the initial consonant, as can be seen from the merged Gedney tone boxes for Standard Thai and the accent of Chiang Mai:

Note that the commonalities between columns are features of the Chiang Mai accent. On the other hand, the relationships between rows are typical of Northern Thai, being found for at least for Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Phayao, Nan and Prae, and extending at least to Tak and the old 6-tone accent of Tai Khuen, except that the checked syllables of Chiang Rai are more complicated.

The primary function of a tone box is etymological. However, it also serves as a summary of the rules for tone indication when the writing system is essentially etymological in that regard, as is the case with the major Tai-language writing systems using the Thai, Lanna, New Tai Lue, Lao and Tai Dam scripts.

Some words differ only as a result of the regular tone correspondences:

Other tone differences are unpredictable, such as:

Some words differ in a single sound and associated tone. In many words, the initial ร (/r/) in Standard Thai corresponds to ฮ (/h/) in Northern Thai:

Aspiration of initial consonants

Some aspirated consonants in the low-class consonant group (อักษรต่ำ /ʔàk.sɔ̌ːn.tàm/) in Standard Thai correspond to unaspirated sounds in Northern Thai. These sounds include ค, ช, ท, and พ (/kʰ/, /tɕʰ/, /tʰ/, and /pʰ/ respectively), but sounds such as ฅ, คร, ฆ, ฒ, พร, ภ (/kʰ/, /kʰr/, /kʰ/, /tʰ/, /pʰr/, and /pʰ/ respectively) remain aspirated. Such aspirated consonants that are unaspirated in Northern Thai correspond to unaspirated voiced sounds in Proto-Tai which are *ɡ, *ɟ, *d, and *b (ค, ช, ท, and พ respectively).:

But not:

Though a number of aspirated consonants in Standard Thai often correspond to unaspirated sounds in Northern Thai, when an unaspirated consonant is followed by ร (/r/) the unaspirated consonant becomes aspirated:

Notes

1. Northern Thai at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
2. Natnapang 2004, Section 3.5.6 The changing pronunciation of the Lanna script and Kammuang As with all languages, the pronunciation of the written and spoken forms changes over time. This is another problem that Kammuang speakers may have when they learn to write the Lanna script. These changes occur in only some words, and there are no readily apparent rules to explain the changes....
3. Edmondson, J.A. and Gregerson, K.J. (2007). The Languages of Vietnam: Mosaics and Expansions in Language and Linguistics Compass, 1(0). pp. 727–749.
4. Pittayaporn, Pittayawat (2014). 'Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Proto-Southwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai.' MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities, Special Issue No 20: 47–64.
5. ^ Kemasingki, Pim; Prateepkoh, Pariyakorn (2017-08-01). "RIP Kham Mueang: the slow death of a language". Chiang Mai Citylife. Retrieved 2021-11-01.
6. Chiu, Angela S. (2017-03-31). The Buddha in Lanna: Art, Lineage, Power, and Place in Northern Thailand. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-7312-7.
7. Panyaatisin, Kosin (2018-07-21). Dialect Maintenance, Shift and Variation in a Northern Thai Industrial Estate (phd thesis). University of Essex.
8. ^ Sukprasert, Maliwan; Wongsothorn, Achara (2015). "Kham Mueang Dialect Usage over Three Generations in Tambon Wiang Phayao". Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. 41: 153–166. ISSN 0125-2860.
9. Thanajirawat, Zirivarnphicha (2018). Tonal Geography of Tai Yuan in Southeast Asia. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, held May 17–19, 2018 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
10. Rungruengsi 2004, pp. ณ-ด
11. Natnapang 2004, Section 3.5.2 Initial consonant clusters in the Lanna script
12. Rungrueangsi 2004, p. 307, but not listed by Natnapang
13. Rungruengsi 2004, p. 795, word ᩉ᩠ᨿ᩠ᩅᩣ᩠ᨾ
14. Tingsabadh & Abramson (1993:25) harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFTingsabadh_&_Abramson1993 (help)
15. Hundius, Harald. Phonologie und Schrift des Nordthai. Marburg: Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft ;, 1990. Print.
16. ^ พจนานุกรมภาษาล้านนา = The Lanna dictionary (พิมพ์ครั้งที่ 2). (พ.ศ. 2550 ). เชียงใหม่: สถาบันภาษา ศิลปะและวัฒนธรรม มหาวิทยาลัยราชภัฏเชียงใหม่.
17. ^ Gedney, W. J. (1999). Southwestern Tai dialects: Glossaries, texts, and translations (T. J. Hudak, Ed.). University of Michigan Center for South East Asian Studies.
18. Pittayaporn, P. (2007). Directionality of tone change. Proceedings of the 16th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS XVI), 1421–1424.
19. ^ Rungrueangsi 2004, p. ฉ
20. ^ Li, Fang Kuei (1977). A Handbook of Comparative Tai. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. Vol. 15. The University Press of Hawaii. pp. 46, 52. ISBN 0-8248-0540-2.
21. Rungrueangsi 2004, pp. ฉ, ช & 769
22. Rungrueangsi 2004, pp. ฉ, ช & 199
23. Rungrueangsi 2004, pp. ฉ, ช & 746

References

• Khamjan, Mala (2008). Kham Mueang Dictionary พจนานุกรมคำเมือง [Photchananukrom Kham Mueang] (in Thai). Chiang Mai: Bookworm. ISBN 978-974-8418-55-1.
• Natnapang Burutphakdee (October 2004). Khon Muang Neu Kap Phasa Muang [Attitudes of Northern Thai Youth towards Kammuang and the Lanna Script] (PDF) (M.A. Thesis). Presented at 4th National Symposium on Graduate Research, Chiang Mai, Thailand, August 10–11, 2004. Asst. Prof. Dr. Kirk R. Person, adviser. Chiang Mai: Payap University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-05. Retrieved June 8, 2013.
• Rungrueangsi, Udom (ศาสตราจารย์ ดร.อุดม รุ่งเรืองศรี) (2004) . Lanna-Thai Dictionary, Princess Mother Version พจนานุกรมล้านนา ~ ไทย ฉบับแม่ฟ้าหลวง [Photchananukrom Lanna ~ Thai, Chabap Maefa Luang] (in Thai) (Revision 1 ed.). Chiang Mai: Rongphim Ming Mueang (โรงพิมพ์มิ่งเมือง). ISBN 974-8359-03-4.

Further reading

• Bilmes, J. (1996). Problems And Resources In Analyzing Northern Thai Conversation For English Language Readers. Journal of Pragmatics, 26(2), 171–188.
• Davis, R. (1970). A Northern Thai reader. Bangkok: Siam Society.
• Filbeck, D. (1973). Pronouns in Northern Thai. Anthropological Linguistics, 15(8), 345–361.
• Herington, Jennifer, Margaret Potter, Amy Ryan and Jennifer Simmons (2013). Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Thai. SIL Electronic Survey Reports.
• Howard, K. M. (2009). "When Meeting Khun Teacher, Each Time We Should Pay Respect": Standardizing Respect In A Northern Thai Classroom. Linguistics and Education, 20(3), 254–272.
• Khankasikam, K. (2012). Printed Lanna character recognition by using conway's game of life. In ICDIM (pp. 104–109).
• Pankhuenkhat, R. (1982). The Phonology of the Lanna Language:(a Northern Thai Dialect). Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University.
• Strecker, D. (1979). "A preliminary typology of tone shapes and tonal sound changes in Tai: the La-n N-a A-tones", in Studies in Tai and Mon-Khmer Phonetics and Phonology In Honour of Eugénie J.A. Henderson, ed. T.L. Thongkum et al., pp. 171–240. Chulalongkorn University Press.
• Wangsai, Piyawat. (2007). A Comparative Study of Phonological Yong and Northern Thai Language (Kammuang). M.A. thesis. Kasetsart University.

External links

• Northern Thai New Testament. The New Testament in hard copy form was written using two scripts Amazon link.
• Khamuang (Chiang Mai variety) (Intercontinental Dictionary Series)

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