List of Mesopotamian dynasties

(Redirected from Sumerian kings)

A selection of Mesopotamian rulers: Ur-Nanshe of Lagash (top left; c. 2500 BC), Naram-Sin of Akkad (top right; c. 2254–2218 BC), Marduk-nadin-ahhe of Babylon (bottom left; c. 1095–1078 BC), and Sargon II of Assyria (bottom right; 722–705 BC)

The history of Mesopotamia extends from the Lower Paleolithic period until the establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, after which the region came to be known as Iraq. This list covers dynasties and monarchs of Mesopotamia up until the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, after which native Mesopotamian monarchs never again ruled the region.

The earliest records of writing are known from the Uruk period (or "Protoliterate period") in the 4th millennium BC, with documentation of actual historical events, and the ancient history of the region, being known from the middle of the third millennium BC onwards, alongside cuneiform records written by early kings. This period, known as the Early Dynastic Period, is typically subdivided into three: 2900–2750 BC (ED I), 2750–2600 BC (ED II) and 2600–2350 BC (ED III), and was followed by Akkadian (~2350–2100 BC) and Neo-Sumerian (2112–2004 BC) periods, after which Mesopotamia was most often divided between Assyria in the north and Babylonia in the south. In 609 BC, after about a century of the kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire ruling both Assyria and Babylonia, the Neo-Babylonian Empire destroyed Assyria and became the sole power in Mesopotamia. The conquest of Babylon by the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC initiated centuries of Iranian rule (under the Achaemenid, Parthian and Sasanian empires), which was only briefly interrupted by the Hellenistic Argeads and Seleucids (331–141 BC) and the Roman Empire (AD 116–117).

This list follows the middle chronology, the most widely used chronology of Mesopotamian history.

Early dynastic period (c. 2900–2350 BC)

Before the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century BC, Mesopotamia was fragmented into a number of city states. Whereas some surviving Mesopotamian documents, such as the Sumerian King List, describe this period as one where there was only one legitimate king at any one given time, and kingship was transferred from city to city sequentially, the historical reality was that there were often many political leaders at any one given time. The Sumerian King List is generally not regarded as historically reliable given the exaggerated reign lengths (some rulers are described as ruling for hundreds or even thousands of years) and the fact that out of the massive amount of pre-Akkadian rulers listed in the SKL, very few are actually attested in surviving evidence from the Early Dynastic period. It is considered most appropriate by modern scholars to rely solely on actual Early Dynastic sources for reconstructing historical events during the Early Dynastic period. As such, the table below only lists rulers whose existence is attested by other more contemporary sources.

Century	Kish	Uruk	Ur	Lagash	Umma	Adab
c. 2600s BC	Enmebaragesi Aga of Kish Uhub Mesilim Meskiagnun Elulu	Gilgamesh	A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug Akalamdug Mesannepada A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu
c. 2500s BC				En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur-Nanshe Akurgal	Pabilgagaltuku Ush
c. 2400s BC	Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi	Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi	Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi	Eannatum Enannatum I Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi	Enakalle Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu Edin Meanedu Ushurdu	Lugal-Anne-Mundu Mug-si E-iginimpa'e
c. 2300s BC	Lugal-zage-si	Enshakushanna Lugal-zage-si	Lugalanda Urukagina Lugal-zage-si	Lugalanda Urukagina Lugal-zage-si	Ukush Lugal-zage-si	Meskigal Lugal-zage-si

Akkadian and Neo-Sumerian periods (c. 2334–2004 BC)

Name	Reign	Name	Reign	Name	Reign	Name	Reign
Akkad		Gutium		Lagash		Uruk / Ur
Sargonic dynasty
Sargon	c. 2334–2279 BC
Rimush	c. 2278–2270 BC
Manishtushu	c. 2269–2255 BC			Second dynasty of Lagash
Naram-Sin	c. 2254–2218 BC	Gutian dynasty		Lugal-ushumgal	c. 2230–2210 BC
Shar-Kali-Sharri	c. 2217–2193 BC	Erridupizir	c. 2220–2202 BC	Puzer-Mama	around 2210 BC	Fourth dynasty of Uruk
		Imta	c. 2202–2199 BC	Ur-Ningirsu I	around 2200 BC	Ur-nigin	around 2200 BC
		Imta	c. 2202–2199 BC	Pirig-me	around 2200 BC	Ur-gigir	around 2200 BC
		Inkishush	c. 2199–2195 BC			Ur-gigir	around 2200 BC
Igigi (non-dynastic)	c. 2193 BC	Sarlagab	c. 2195–2192 BC			Kuda	uncertain
Imi (non-dynastic)	c. 2192 BC	Shulme	c. 2192–2186 BC	Lu-Baba	uncertain	Puzur-ili	uncertain
Nanum (non-dynastic)	c. 2191 BC			Lu-Baba	uncertain	Puzur-ili	uncertain
Ilulu (non-dynastic)	c. 2190 BC			Lugula	uncertain	Ur-Utu	uncertain
Dudu	c. 2189–2169 BC	Elulmesh	c. 2186–2180 BC
		Inimabakesh	c. 2180–2175 BC
		Igeshaush	c. 2175–2169 BC	Kaku	uncertain
Shu-turul	c. 2168–2154 BC	Yarlagab	c. 2169–2154 BC
Akkad defeated by the Gutians		Yarlagab	c. 2169–2154 BC
		Ibate	c. 2154–2151 BC	Ur-Baba	c. 2157–2144 BC
		Yarla	c. 2151–2148 BC
		Kurum	c. 2148–2147 BC
		Apilkin	c. 2147–2144 BC
		La-erabum	c. 2144–2142 BC	Gudea	c. 2144–2124 BC
		Irarum	c. 2142–2140 BC
		Ibranum	c. 2140–2139 BC
		Hablum	c. 2139–2137 BC
		Puzur-Suen	c. 2137–2130 BC
		Yarlaganda	c. 2130–2123 BC
		Si'um	c. 2123–2116 BC	Ur-Ningirsu II	c. 2124–2119 BC	Fifth dynasty of Uruk
		Tirigan	c. 2116 BC	Ur-gar	c. 2117–2113 BC	Utu-hengal	c. 2119–2113 BC
Gutians defeated by Utu-Hengal of Uruk				Ur-gar	c. 2117–2113 BC	Third dynasty of Ur
				Nam-mahani	c. 2113–2110 BC	Ur-Nammu	c. 2112–2095 BC
				Lagash defeated by Ur-Nammu of Ur		Shulgi	c. 2094–2047 BC
						Amar-Sin	c. 2046–2038 BC
						Shu-Sin	c. 2037–2029 BC
						Ibbi-Sin	c. 2028–2004 BC

Isin–Larsa and rise of Babylon (c. 2025–1750 BC)

Name	Reign	Name	Reign	Name	Reign	Name	Reign	Name	Reign	Name	Reign
Southern Mesopotamia								Northern Mesopotamia
Isin		Larsa		Babylon		Uruk		Eshnunna		Assyria
First dynasty of Isin		Dynasty of Larsa						Dynasty of Eshnunna		Puzur-Ashur dynasty
Ishbi-Erra	c. 2017–1985 BC	Naplanum	c. 2025–2005 BC					Ituria	uncertain	Puzur-Ashur I	uncertain
Ishbi-Erra	c. 2017–1985 BC	Emisum	c. 2004–1977 BC					Ilushuilia	uncertain	Shalim-ahum	uncertain
Shu-Ilishu	c. 1984–1975 BC	Emisum	c. 2004–1977 BC					Nurakhum	uncertain	Ilu-shuma	uncertain
Iddin-Dagan	c. 1974–1954 BC	Samium	c. 1976–1942 BC					Kirikiri	uncertain	Erishum I	c. 1974–1935 BC
Ishme-Dagan	c. 1953–1935 BC	Zabaia	c. 1941–1933 BC					Bilalama	uncertain	Erishum I	c. 1974–1935 BC
Lipit-Eshtar	c. 1934–1924 BC	Gungunum	c. 1932–1906 BC					Azuzum	uncertain	Ikunum	c. 1934–1921 BC
Ur-Ninurta	c. 1923–1896 BC	Abisare	c. 1905–1895 BC	Amorite dynasty (Dynasty I)				Ipiq-Adad I	uncertain	Sargon I	c. 1920–1881 BC
Bur-Suen	c. 1895–1874 BC	Sumuel	c. 1894–1866 BC	Sumu-abum	c. 1894–1881 BC			Shiqlanum	uncertain	Sargon I	c. 1920–1881 BC
Lipit-Enlil	c. 1873–1869 BC	Sumuel	c. 1894–1866 BC	Sumu-abum	c. 1894–1881 BC			Abdi-Erah	uncertain	Puzur-Ashur II	c. 1880–1873 BC
Erra-imitti	c. 1868–1861 BC	Nur-Adad	c. 1865–1850 BC	Sumu-la-El	c. 1880–1845 BC	Sixth dynasty of Uruk		Belakum	uncertain	Puzur-Ashur II	c. 1880–1873 BC
Enlil-bani	c. 1860–1837 BC	Sin-Iddinam	c. 1849–1843 BC	Sumu-la-El	c. 1880–1845 BC	Sin-kashid	uncertain	Warassa	uncertain	Naram-Sin	c. 1872–1829 BC
Zambiya	c. 1836–1834 BC	Sin-Eribam	c. 1842–1841 BC	Sabium	c. 1844–1831 BC	Sin-eribam	uncertain	Ibal-pi-El I	uncertain
Iter-pisha	c. 1833–1831 BC	Sin-Iqisham	c. 1840–1836 BC			Sin-gamil	uncertain	Ipiq-Adad II	uncertain
Iter-pisha	c. 1833–1831 BC	Silli-Adad	c. 1835 BC			An-am	uncertain	Naram-Sin	uncertain
Ur-du-kuga	c. 1830–1828 BC	Warad-Sin	c. 1834–1823 BC			Irdanene	uncertain	Dadusha	uncertain
Suen-magir	c. 1827–1817 BC	Rim-Sin I	c. 1822–1763 BC	Apil-Sin	c. 1830–1813 BC	Rîm-Anum	uncertain	Ibal-pi-El II	c. 1762 BC	Erishum II	c. 1828–1809 BC
Suen-magir	c. 1827–1817 BC			Apil-Sin	c. 1830–1813 BC	Rîm-Anum	uncertain			Shamshi-Adad dynasty
Damiq-ilishu	c. 1816–1794 BC			Sin-Muballit	c. 1812–1793 BC	Nabi-ilishu	c. 1802 BC			Shamshi-Adad I	c. 1808–1776 BC
Isin defeated by Rim-Sin I of Larsa				Sin-Muballit	c. 1812–1793 BC					Shamshi-Adad I	c. 1808–1776 BC
Isin defeated by Rim-Sin I of Larsa				Hammurabi	c. 1792–1750 BC	Uruk defeated by Hammurabi of Babylon		Eshnunna defeated by Siwepalarhuhpak of Elam		Ishme-Dagan I	c. 1775–1735 BC
Larsa defeated by Hammurabi of Babylon

Fragmentation of Babylonia (c. 1749–1475 BC)

Name	Reign	Name	Reign	Name	Reign	Name	Reign
Southern Mesopotamia (Babylonia)						Northern Mesopotamia
Babylon		Kassites		Sealand		Assyria
Amorite dynasty (Dynasty I; continued)		Kassite dynasty (Dynasty III)		First Sealand dynasty (Dynasty II)		Shamshi-Adad dynasty (continued)
Samsu-iluna	c. 1749–1712 BC	Gandash	c. 1729–1704 BC	Ilum-ma-ili	c. 1725–? BC	Mut-Ashkur	uncertain
Samsu-iluna	c. 1749–1712 BC	Gandash	c. 1729–1704 BC	Ilum-ma-ili	c. 1725–? BC	Rimush	uncertain
Abi-Eshuh	c. 1711–1684 BC	Agum I	c. 1703–1682 BC	Itti-ili-nibi	uncertain	Asinum	uncertain
						Seven usurpers
						Ashur-dugul	uncertain
						Ashur-apla-idi
						Nasir-Sin
						Sin-namir
						Ipqi-Ishtar
						Adad-salulu
						Adasi
						Adaside dynasty
				Damqi-ilishu	uncertain	Bel-bani	c. 1700–1691 BC
		Kashtiliash I	c. 1681–1660 BC	Damqi-ilishu	uncertain	Libaya	c. 1691–1674 BC
Ammi-Ditana	c. 1683–1647 BC	Abi-Rattash	uncertain	Ishkibal	uncertain	Sharma-Adad I	c. 1673–1662 BC
Ammi-Ditana	c. 1683–1647 BC			Ishkibal	uncertain	Iptar-Sin	c. 1661–1650 BC
Ammi-Saduqa	c. 1646–1626 BC			Shushushi	uncertain	Bazaya	c. 1649–1622 BC
Samsu-Ditana	c. 1625–1595 BC	Kashtiliash II	uncertain	Gulkishar	uncertain	Lullaya	c. 1621–1616 BC
						Shu-Ninua	c. 1615–1602 BC
						Sharma-Adad II	c. 1601–1598 BC
Babylon destroyed by the Hittites		Urzigurumash	uncertain	Peshgaldaramesh	c. 1599–1549 BC	Erishum III	c. 1598–1586 BC
		Agum II	uncertain			Shamshi-Adad II	c. 1585–1580 BC
		Harba-Shipak	uncertain			Ishme-Dagan II	c. 1580–1564 BC
Kassite dynasty (Dynasty III)		Shipta'ulzi	uncertain			Shamshi-Adad III	c. 1564–1548 BC
Burnaburiash I	c. 1530–1500 BC	Burnaburiash I	c. 1530–1500 BC	Ayadaragalama	c. 1548–1520 BC	Ashur-nirari I	c. 1548–1522 BC
Burnaburiash I	c. 1530–1500 BC	Burnaburiash I	c. 1530–1500 BC	Akurduana	c. 1519–1493 BC	Puzur-Ashur III	c. 1522–1498 BC
Ulamburiash	around 1475 BC	Ulamburiash	around 1475 BC	Melamkurkurra	c. 1492–1485 BC	Enlil-nasir I	c. 1498–1485 BC
Ulamburiash	around 1475 BC	Ulamburiash	around 1475 BC	Ea-gamil	c. 1484–1475 BC	Nur-ili	c. 1485–1473 BC

Babylonia and rising Assyria (c. 1475–539 BC)

Main articles: List of kings of Babylon and List of Assyrian kings

Name	Reign	Name	Reign
Babylonia		Assyria
Kassite dynasty (Dynasty III; continued)		Adaside dynasty (continued)
Ulamburiash	around 1475 BC	Ashur-shaduni	c. 1473 BC
Kashtiliash III	uncertain	Ashur-rabi I	c. 1473–1453 BC
Kashtiliash III	uncertain	Ashur-nadin-ahhe I	c. 1453–1431 BC
Agum III	uncertain	Enlil-nasir II	c. 1430–1425 BC
Agum III	uncertain	Ashur-nirari II	c. 1424–1418 BC
Karaindash	around 1415 BC	Ashur-bel-nisheshu	c. 1417–1409 BC
Karaindash	around 1415 BC	Ashur-rim-nisheshu	c. 1408–1401 BC
Kadashman-Harbe I	around 1400 BC	Ashur-nadin-ahhe II	c. 1400–1391 BC
Kadashman-Harbe I	around 1400 BC	Eriba-Adad I	c. 1390–1364 BC
Kurigalzu I	uncertain	Ashur-uballit I	c. 1363–1328 BC
Kadashman-Enlil I	c. 1374–1360 BC
Burnaburiash II	c. 1359–1333 BC
Kara-hardash	c. 1333 BC	Enlil-nirari	c. 1327–1318 BC
Nazi-Bugash	c. 1333 BC	Enlil-nirari	c. 1327–1318 BC
Kurigalzu II	c. 1332–1308 BC	Arik-den-ili	c. 1317–1306 BC
Nazi-Maruttash	c. 1307–1282 BC	Adad-nirari I	c. 1305–1274 BC
Kadashman-Turgu	c. 1281–1264 BC	Shalmaneser I	c. 1273–1244 BC
Kadashman-Enlil II	c. 1263–1255 BC
Kudur-Enlil	c. 1254–1246 BC
Shagarakti-Shuriash	c. 1245–1233 BC	Tukulti-Ninurta I	c. 1243–1207 BC
Kashtiliash IV	c. 1232–1225 BC
Enlil-nadin-shumi	c. 1224 BC
Kadashman-Harbe II	c. 1223 BC
Adad-shuma-iddina	c. 1222–1217 BC
Adad-shuma-usur	c. 1216–1187 BC	Ashur-nadin-apli	c. 1206–1203 BC
		Ashur-nirari III	c. 1202–1197 BC
		Enlil-kudurri-usur	c. 1196–1192 BC
Meli-Shipak	c. 1186–1172 BC	Ninurta-apal-Ekur	c. 1191–1179 BC
Marduk-apla-iddina I	c. 1171–1159 BC	Ashur-dan I	c. 1178–1133 BC
Zababa-shuma-iddin	c. 1158 BC
Enlil-nadin-ahi	c. 1157–1155 BC
Second dynasty of Isin (Dynasty IV)
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu	c. 1153–1136 BC
Itti-Marduk-balatu	c. 1135–1128 BC	Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur	c. 1132 BC
Itti-Marduk-balatu	c. 1135–1128 BC	Mutakkil-nusku	c. 1132 BC
Ninurta-nadin-shumi	c. 1127–1122 BC	Ashur-resh-ishi I	1132–1115 BC
Nebuchadnezzar I	c. 1121–1100 BC	Tiglath-Pileser I	1114–1076 BC
Enlil-nadin-apli	c. 1099–1096 BC
Marduk-nadin-ahhe	c. 1095–1078 BC
Marduk-shapik-zeri	c. 1077–1065 BC	Asharid-apal-Ekur	1075–1074 BC
Adad-apla-iddina	c. 1064–1043 BC	Ashur-bel-kala	1073–1056 BC
		Eriba-Adad II	1055–1054 BC
		Shamshi-Adad IV	1053–1050 BC
Marduk-ahhe-eriba	c. 1042 BC	Ashurnasirpal I	1049–1031 BC
Marduk-zer-X	c. 1041–1030 BC	Ashurnasirpal I	1049–1031 BC
Nabu-shum-libur	c. 1029–1022 BC	Shalmaneser II	1030–1019 BC
Second Sealand dynasty (Dynasty V)		Ashur-nirari IV	1018–1013 BC
Simbar-shipak	c. 1021–1004 BC	Ashur-nirari IV	1018–1013 BC
Ea-mukin-zeri	c. 1004 BC	Ashur-rabi II	1012–972 BC
Kashshu-nadin-ahi	c. 1003–1001 BC
Bazi dynasty (Dynasty VI)
Eulmash-shakin-shumi	c. 1000–984 BC
Ninurta-kudurri-usur I	c. 983–981 BC
Shirikti-shuqamuna	c. 981 BC
Elamite dynasty (Dynasty VII)
Mar-biti-apla-usur	c. 980–975 BC
Dynasty of E (Dynasty VIII)
Nabu-mukin-apli	c. 974–939 BC	Ashur-resh-ishi II	971–967 BC
Nabu-mukin-apli	c. 974–939 BC	Tiglath-Pileser II	967–935 BC
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II	c. 939 BC	Ashur-dan II	935–912 BC
Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina	c. 938–? BC
Shamash-mudammiq	c. ?–901 BC
Nabu-shuma-ukin I	c. 900–887 BC	Adad-nirari II	912–891 BC
Nabu-apla-iddina	c. 886–853 BC	Tukulti-Ninurta II	891–884 BC
Marduk-zakir-shumi I	c. 852–825 BC	Ashurnasirpal II	884–859 BC
Marduk-zakir-shumi I	c. 852–825 BC	Shalmaneser III	859–824 BC
Marduk-balassu-iqbi	c. 824–813 BC	Shamshi-Adad V	824–811 BC
Baba-aha-iddina	c. 813–812 BC	Adad-nirari III	811–783 BC
Ninurta-apla-X	uncertain
Marduk-bel-zeri	uncertain
Marduk-apla-usur	uncertain	Shalmaneser IV	783–773 BC
Eriba-Marduk	c. 769–760 BC	Ashur-dan III	773–755 BC
Nabu-shuma-ishkun	c. 760–748 BC	Ashur-nirari V	755–745 BC
Nabonassar	748–734 BC	Tiglath-Pileser III	745–727 BC
Nabu-nadin-zeri	734–732 BC
Nabu-shuma-ukin II	732 BC
Nabu-mukin-zeri (non-dynastic)	732–729 BC
Adaside dynasty (also in Assyria)
Tiglath-Pileser III	729–727 BC
Shalmaneser V	727–722 BC	Shalmaneser V	727–722 BC
Sargonid dynasty
Marduk-apla-iddina II (non-dynastic)	722–710 BC	Sargon II	722–705 BC
Sargon II	710–705 BC	Sargon II	722–705 BC
Sennacherib	705–703 BC	Sennacherib	705–681 BC
Marduk-zakir-shumi II (non-dynastic)	703 BC
Marduk-apla-iddina II (non-dynastic)	703 BC
Bel-ibni (vassal king)	703–700 BC
Ashur-nadin-shumi	700–694 BC
Nergal-ushezib (non-dynastic)	694–693 BC
Mushezib-Marduk (non-dynastic)	693–689 BC
Sennacherib	689–681 BC
Esarhaddon	681–669 BC	Esarhaddon	681–669 BC
Shamash-shum-ukin	668–648 BC	Ashurbanipal	669–631 BC
Kandalanu (vassal king)	647–627 BC	Ashur-etil-ilani	631–627 BC
Sinsharishkun	627–626 BC	Sinsharishkun	627–612 BC
Sin-shumu-lishir (usurper)	626 BC
Chaldean dynasty (Dynasty X)
Nabopolassar	626–605 BC	Ashur-uballit II	612–609 BC
Nebuchadnezzar II	605–562 BC	Assyria defeated by Nabopolassar of Babylon
Amel-Marduk	562–560 BC
Neriglissar (non-dynastic)	560–556 BC
Labashi-Marduk (non-dynastic)	556 BC
Nabonidus (non-dynastic)	556–539 BC

Notes

Considered the first king of the Old Assyrian period
Rim-Sin I was the last independent king of Larsa, though the city rebelled against Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna in 1737, with Rim-Sin II briefly ruling there as king.
The earliest Kassite ruler confidently attested as ruling Babylon itself.
Reunified Babylonia through defeating Ea-gamil, the last king of the First Sealand dynasty
Considered the first king of the Middle Assyrian period
Considered the first king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire
Sometimes assigned to his own dynasty, the "Shapi dynasty"
^ Sometimes assigned to his own dynasty, the "Third Sealand dynasty"
^ Assigned to the earlier Dynasty of E in king-lists

References

"Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)".
Marchesi 2010, p. 234.
^ Marchesi 2010, pp. 236–237.
Marchesi 2010, p. 238.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 36.
^ Crawford 2013, p. xxiii.
^ Crawford 2013, p. xxiv.
^ Oppenheim 1977, p. 336.
^ Roaf 1996, p. 111.
^ Chen 2020, pp. 197–201.
^ Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 69.
^ Roaf 1996, p. 110.
^ Oppenheim 1977, p. 337.
^ Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 126; Murai 1979, p. 6.
^ Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, pp. 129–130.
^ Assyrian King List; Ancient Egypt and Archaeology.
^ Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 126.
^ Chen 2020, pp. 202–206; Beaulieu 2018, p. 126; Leick 2003, p. 142.
^ Assyrian King List; Kuhrt 1995, p. 351.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 155.
^ Beaulieu 2018, pp. 176–178.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 178.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 195.
^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 220.

Bibliography

Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2018). A History of Babylon, 2200 BC - AD 75. Pondicherry: Wiley. ISBN 978-1405188999.
Chen, Fei (2020). Study on the Synchronistic King List from Ashur. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 978-9004430914.
Crawford, Harriet (2013). The Sumerian World. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415569675.
Kuhrt, Amélie (1995). The Ancient Near East, C. 3000-330 BC, Volume 1. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-01353-4.
Leick, Gwendolyn (2003). Historical Dictionary of Mesopotamia. Lanham: The Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810846494.
Marchesi, Gianni (2010). "The Sumerian King List and the Early History of Mesopotamia". Ana turri gimilli: Studi dedicati al Padre Werner R. Mayer, S. J., da amici e allievi.
Murai, Nobuaki (1979). Studies in the aklu Documents of the Middle Babylonian Period (PhD thesis). Leiden University.
Oppenheim, A. Leo (1977). Reiner, Erica (ed.). Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization (Revised ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226631875.
Roaf, Michael (1996). Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East. New York: Facts on File Inc. ISBN 0-8160-2218-6.

Web sources

"Ancient Egypt and Archaeology Web Site - Ancient Egypt - Assyrian". www.ancient-egypt.co.uk. Retrieved 2019-11-13.
"The Assyrian King List - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2 April 2019.

Ancient Mesopotamia

Geography

Modern	Upper Mesopotamia Lower Mesopotamia Mesopotamian Marshes Persian Gulf Syrian Desert Taurus Mountains Tigris–Euphrates river system Euphrates Tigris Zagros Mountains Hamrin Mountains Sinjar Mountains
Ancient	Fertile Crescent Adiabene Akkad Armani Assyria Babylonia Chaldea Elam Gutium Hamazi Hittites Kassites Media Mitanni Simurrum Subartu Suhum Sumer Tukri Urartu Cities

(Pre)history

Prehistory	Acheulean Mousterian Trialetian Zarzian Natufian Nemrik Khiamian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) Hassuna/Samarra Halaf Ubaid Uruk Jemdet Nasr Kish civilization
History	Early Dynastic Akkadian Gutians Simurrum Ur III Isin-Larsa Old Babylonian Kassite Middle Babylonian Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Fall of Babylon Achaemenid Seleucid Parthian Roman Sasanian Muslim conquest

Languages

Culture/society

Archaeology

Religion

Academia

Rulers of the Ancient Near East

Territories/ dates	Egypt		Canaan	Ebla	Mari	Kish/ Assur	Akshak/ Akkad	Uruk	Adab	Umma	Lagash	Ur	Elam
4000–3200 BCE	Naqada I Naqada II		Egypt-Mesopotamia relations	Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)									Susa I
4000–3200 BCE	Naqada I Naqada II			Uruk period (4000–3100 BCE) (Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests")									Susa II (Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE	Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings:
3200–3100 BCE	Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes	Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash
3100–2900 BCE	Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Palette Narmer Menes Neithhotep (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird		Canaanites	Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BCE)									Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE	Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy			Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE				First Eblaite Kingdom	First kingdom of Mari	Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum
2800 BCE						Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna		Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher
2800 BCE								Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")
2700 BCE				Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
						Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum		Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman
						Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")
						Aga of Kish		Gilgamesh					Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE	Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser (First Egyptian pyramids) Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni			Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
				Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu		Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim		Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum			Lagash En-hegal Lugal- shaengur	Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug
						Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim		Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun	Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu		Lagash En-hegal Lugal- shaengur
2575 BCE	Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis				Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE			Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE)		Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi	Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba	Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu	Uruk II dynasty Ensha- kushanna	Mug-si	Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku	Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal	A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu	Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur
2450 BCE	Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas			Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik						Ush Enakalle		A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu	Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur
2450 BCE				Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik						Ush Enakalle		Elamite invasions (3 kings)	Shushun- tarana Napilhush
2425 BCE				Kun-Damu		Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE				Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu		Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa	Urur	Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi	E-iginimpa'e Meskigal	Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun)	Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi	Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II	Kiku-siwe-tempti
2380 BCE	Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah			Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE				Isar-Damu	Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari	Invasion by Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter				Ukush	Lugalanda Urukagina		Luh-ishan
2350 BCE				Isar-Damu	Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari		Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin	Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)					Luh-ishan
2340 BCE					Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
2340 BCE				Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu									Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani
2250 BCE				Naram-Sin							Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE	First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare			Second Eblaite Kingdom	Third kingdom of Mari (Shakkanakku dynasty) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians)	Shar-Kali-Sharri					Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE						Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul		Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir			Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku		Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE	Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut				Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
					Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin	Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um		Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu		Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians)	Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani
						Tirigan					Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani
2125 BCE	Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare					Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal
2100 BCE				(Vassals of UR III)	Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar (Vassals of Ur III)	Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin
2025-1763 BCE				Amorite invasions							Ibbi-Sin	Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
	Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
				Third Eblaite Kingdom (Amorites) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma	(Amorite Shakkanakkus) Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (...) Lim Dynasty of Mari (Amorites) Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu)	Old Assyria Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II	Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil An-am Irdanene Rîm-Anum Nabi-ilišu						Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
	Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu
1800–1595 BCE	Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt		Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon	Yamhad (Yamhad dynasty) (Amorites)	Old Assyria (Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II		First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballit Sabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers				Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar DIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil
1800–1595 BCE	Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty	Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi		Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar
1531–1155 BCE	Tutankhamun New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I			Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar			Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi						Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha
	Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut Thutmose III
	Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb			Hittite Empire Ugarit
	Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret			Hittite Empire Ugarit			Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE	Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II		Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon	Syro-Hittite states	Middle Assyria Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II		Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur						Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE							Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli						Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
911–745 BCE	Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef		Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah		Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V		Eight Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri						Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III
745–609 BCE	Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt Taharqa ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun		Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II
745–609 BCE	Assyrian conquest of Egypt												Assyrian conquest of Elam
626–539 BCE	Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III		Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus										Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages
539–331 BCE	Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)		Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon	Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
	Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
	Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE	Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic Egypt Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV		Hellenistic Period Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon Argead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus I Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE			Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias	Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus	Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE	Roman Empire
30 BCE–116 CE	(Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt		Judea	Syria
116–117 CE			Judea		Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan			Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE			Syria Palaestina		Province of Mesopotamia	Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
224–270 CE			Syria Palaestina		Province of Mesopotamia	Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint. Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
270–273 CE	Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus
273–395 CE	Roman Empire
273–395 CE	Province of Egypt		Syria Palaestina	Syria	Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE	Byzantine Empire
395–618 CE	Byzantine Egypt		Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda	Byzantine Syria	Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE	(Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz		Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II
628–641 CE	Byzantine Empire					Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
628–641 CE	Byzantine Egypt		Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda	Byzantine Syria	Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE	Muslim conquest of Egypt		Muslim conquest of the Levant		Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Chronology of the Neolithic period							Rulers of Ancient Central Asia
Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional. Hallo, W.; Simpson, W. (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ Per Sumerian King List Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.